Pituitary最新文献

{"title":"Colonoscopy in acromegaly: when and why.","authors":"Jakob Dal","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01528-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01528-x","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"55"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144017318","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A post-hoc internal validation of arginine-stimulated copeptin cut-offs for diagnosing AVP deficiency (central diabetes insipidus).","authors":"Cihan Atila, Bettina Winzeler, Irina Chifu, Martin Fassnacht, Julie Refardt, Mirjam Christ-Crain","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01523-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01523-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Distinguishing arginine vasopressin (AVP) deficiency (central diabetes insipidus) from primary polydipsia is challenging. While hypertonic saline-stimulated copeptin testing provides the highest diagnostic accuracy, it is often restricted to specialised centres, requiring close monitoring and potentially causing patient discomfort. Initially, arginine-stimulated copeptin was proposed as a simpler alternative, but a head-to-head comparison study found it less precise than hypertonic saline stimulation. However, the same study identified two new high sensitivity and specificity cut-offs for arginine-stimulated copeptin, though these cut-offs have yet to be validated.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This is a secondary post-hoc analysis of the initial prospective multicentre study, including adult patients with confirmed AVP deficiency or primary polydipsia. Participants underwent the arginine stimulation test, with plasma copeptin measured at baseline and 60- and 90 min after arginine infusion. The primary objective was to revisit the original study to internally validate the proposed arginine-stimulated copeptin cut-offs of > 5.2pmol/L (high specificity cut-off with > 90% specificity for primary polydipsia) and ≤ 3.0 pmol/L (high specificity cut-off with > 90% specificity for AVP deficiency).</p><p><strong>Findings: </strong>In total, 96 patients were included between May 2013 and June 2018: n = 38 [40%] with AVP deficiency and n = 58 [60%] with primary polydipsia. At 60 min after arginine infusion, a copeptin level ≤ 3.0 pmol/L showed a specificity of 95% (95% CI: 0.88-1.00) for AVP deficiency, while a copeptin level > 5.2 pmol/L demonstrated a specificity of 97% (95% CI: 0.92-1.00) for primary polydipsia. The ≤ 3.0 pmol/L cut-off accurately identified 71% (n = 27/38) of patients with AVP deficiency, and the > 5.2 pmol/L cut-off correctly identified 69% (n = 40/58) of patients with primary polydipsia.</p><p><strong>Interpretation: </strong>This analysis validates two new copeptin cut-offs of the arginine stimulation test to distinguish AVP deficiency from primary polydipsia: >5.2 pmol/L for high specificity in diagnosing primary polydipsia and ≤ 3.0 pmol/L for high specificity in diagnosing AVP deficiency. These thresholds might offer a practical initial alternative to hypertonic saline testing.</p><p><strong>Registration: </strong>Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT00757276).</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"53"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12031852/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144050527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Acromegaly facial changes analysis using last generation artificial intelligence methodology: the AcroFace system.","authors":"Hatem A Rashwan, Montserrat Marqués-Pamies, Sabina Ruiz, Joan Gil, Diego Asensio-Wandosell, María-Antonia Martínez-Momblán, Federico Vázquez, Isabel Salinas, Raquel Ciriza, Mireia Jordà, Philippe Chanson, Elena Valassi, Mohamed Abdelnasser, Domènec Puig, Manel Puig-Domingo","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01515-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01515-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>To describe the development of the AcroFace system, an AI-based system for early detection of acromegaly, based on facial photographs analysis.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Two types of features were explored: (1) the visual/texture of a set of 2D facial images, and (2) geometric information obtained from a reconstructed 3D model from a single image. We optimized acromegaly detection by integrating SVM for geometric features and CNNs for visual features, each chosen for their strength in processing distinct data types effectively. This combination enhances overall accuracy by leveraging SVM's capability to manage structured, quantitative data and CNNs' proficiency in interpreting complex image textures, thus providing a comprehensive analysis of both geometric alignment and textural anomalies. ResNet-50, VGG-16, MobileNet, Inception V3, DensNet121 and Xception models were trained with an expert endocrinologist-based score as a ground truth.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>ResNet-50 model as a feature extractor and Support Vector Regression (SVR) with a linear kernel showed the best performance (accuracy δ1 of 75% and δ3 of 89%), followed by the VGG-16 as a feature extractor and SVR with a linear kernel. Geometric features yield less accurate results than visual ones. The validation cohort showed the following performance: precision 0.90, accuracy 0.93, F1-Score 0.92, sensitivity 0.93 and specificity 0.93.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>AcroFace system shows a good performance to discriminate acromegaly and non-acromegaly facial traits that may serve for the detection of acromegaly at an early stage as a screening procedure at a population level.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"50"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12011943/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144053300","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impulse control disorders in patients with pituitary adenoma managed with or without dopamine agonists: a cross-sectional study from a UK centre.","authors":"Ross Hamblin, Mary White, Athanasios Fountas, Niki Karavitaki","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01517-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01517-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>Studies from various countries raise concerns on the association between dopamine agonist (DA) treatment and impulse control disorders (ICDs) in patients with pituitary adenomas. We investigated the prevalence of ICDs in patients with pituitary adenomas in a UK centre using two instruments applied in clinical practice for assessing ICDs.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Cross-sectional study of adults with prolactinoma, acromegaly or non-functioning pituitary adenoma (NFPA) treated or not with DAs in a pituitary centre. Screening tools for ICD were the Minnesota Impulse Disorders Interview (MIDI) and Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (QUIP-RS).</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Data from 200 patients were analysed [72 prolactinomas (on DA), 71 NFPAs (no DA), 57 with acromegaly (12 on DA)]. The percentage of patients scoring for any ICD was higher in the prolactinoma on DA group compared with the NFPA cases; MIDI 12.7% vs. 1.4% (p = 0.02) and QUIP-RS 46.5% vs. 18.6% (p < 0.001), respectively. DA use was associated with positive scores for all ICDs in the MIDI and with compulsive buying and hobbyism-punding in the QUIP-RS. DA dose or treatment duration were not associated with positive scores. The responses of patients with acromegaly on DA did not differ from those not on these agents in any questionnaire.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>In this sample of UK patients, prevalence of ICDs is higher in prolactinoma patients on DA compared to those with NFPA not on DA. Differences were not observed between patients with acromegaly treated or not with DA. Different ICD assessment tools have an impact on the detected outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"52"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12011938/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144026030","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Epigenetic implications in the pathogenesis of corticotroph tumors.","authors":"Ticiana Paes, Leo J Hofland, Anand M Iyer, Richard A Feelders","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01522-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01522-3","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Non-mutational epigenetic reprogramming is considered an important enabling characteristic of neoplasia. Corticotroph tumors and other subtypes of pituitary tumors are characterized by distinct epigenetic profiles. The DNA methylation profile is consistent with disease-specific gene expression, which highlights the importance of epigenetic changes in tumor formation and progression. Elucidating the epigenetic changes underlying tumorigenesis plays an important role in understanding the molecular pathogenesis of corticotroph tumors and may ultimately contribute to improving tumor-specific treatment. Here, we provide an overview of the epigenetic landscape of corticotroph tumors. We also review the role of epigenetics in silencing the expression of tumor suppressor genes and promoting oncogenes expression, which could potentially be involved in the pathogenesis of corticotroph tumors. We briefly discuss microRNAs and epigenetic aspects of POMC regulation. Lastly, since the epigenetic changes are reversible, we discuss drugs that target epigenetic modifiers that could potentially be used in the arsenal of Cushing's disease treatment modalities.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"51"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12011945/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144030145","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impact of sella floor reconstruction on Rathke Cleft Cyst recurrence: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","authors":"Ryan Beerling Dolovac, James King, Christopher Ovenden, Jeremy Kam, Yi Yuen Wang, Tony Goldschlager, Mendel Castle-Kirszbaum","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01521-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01521-4","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The optimal surgical technique for managing Rathke's Cleft Cyst (RCC) remains unclear. Leaving the sellar defect open (marsupialisation) after transsphenoidal surgery facilitates ongoing drainage of cyst contents, but cannot be performed in the setting of an intraoperative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak. The effects of intraoperative CSF leaks and sellar floor reconstruction on RCC recurrence require further investigation.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A systematic literature search was conducted for studies reporting RCC recurrence following transsphenoidal surgery, with data on intraoperative CSF leak rates and skull base reconstruction. Studies were classified based on surgical technique: cyst wall resection vs. fenestration, and open (no reconstruction) vs. closed (reconstructed) sellar floor.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Nineteen studies, comprising 1,076 patients, were included. The overall radiological RCC recurrence rate was 19.8% over a mean follow-up of 50.4 months. The recurrence rate in closed sella surgeries was significantly higher (32.1%) than in open sellar cases (14.0%) (OR 2.28, 95% CI: 1.41-3.67, p < 0.05). Intraoperative CSF leak occurred in 29.1% of cases. Patients with CSF leaks had a higher recurrence rate (23.4% vs. 12.9%), though meta-analysis demonstrated only a non-significant trend (OR 1.67, 95% CI: 0.95-2.96). Subgroup analysis revealed that intraoperative CSF leaks were significantly associated with increased recurrence after fenestration (38.5% vs. 18.4%, p = 0.03), and cyst wall resection (21.7% vs. 7.8%, p = 0.004). In the setting of an intraoperative CSF leak, there was a trend for lower recurrence when cyst wall resection was attempted (21.7% vs. 38.5%, p = 0.09).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Patients undergoing transsphenoidal surgery for RCC experience high rates of postoperative radiological recurrence. Cyst fenestration while maintaining an open sellar floor (marsupialisation into the sphenoid sinus) is associated with a significantly lower risk of recurrence at over 4 years follow-up. Intraoperative CSF leaks were less strongly associated with cyst recurrence, suggesting that watertight reconstruction, rather than the leak itself, is the primary driver of reaccumulation. When a closed sella is necessitated by intraoperative CSF leak, the addition of cyst wall resection may be associated with a lower rate of recurrence than fenestration alone but must be weighed against a higher risk of AVP-deficiency.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"49"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11996996/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143989387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pasireotide as first line medical therapy for selected patients with acromegaly.","authors":"Nicoleta C Olarescu, Anders P Jørgensen, Shahriar Atai, Markus K H Wiedmann, Daniel Dahlberg, Jens Bollerslev, Ansgar Heck","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01514-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01514-3","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and purpose: </strong>In acromegaly, growth hormone (GH) excess and pituitary tumours are typically managed through transsphenoidal surgery, often in combination with somatostatin receptor ligands (SRLs) given either before or following surgery. Although first-generation SRLs (lanreotide and octreotide) are efficacious in many patients, some exhibit resistance.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We present the efficacy of the second-generation SRL, pasireotide, in six patients anticipated to be resistant to first-generation SRLs. The patients had large, hyperintense tumors on T2-weighted MRI and sparse granulation pattern by histology.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Over three to eight months, pasireotide reduced tumour volume in all patients and improved GH and IGF-1 levels. Visual field defects normalised. Despite hyperglycemia, requiring antidiabetic treatment in two patients, pasireotide proved effective as a first pharmacological therapy.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This series supports the use of pasireotide for rapid tumour control and GH reduction, in selected patients with complex and large tumours, likely to be resistant to first-generation SRLs. This approach expands the therapeutic options for managing the most challenging cases enhancing the potential for other subsequent treatment modalities.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 3","pages":"48"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11991941/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144004203","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The assessment of thiol-disulfide homeostasis and ıschemia-modified albumin levels in patients with acromegaly.","authors":"Emre Urhan, Canan Sehit Kara, Esra Fırat Oguz, Salim Neselioglu, Ozcan Erel, Hamiyet Donmez Altuntas, Fahri Bayram","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01519-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01519-y","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>Data regarding the relationship between acromegaly and oxidative stress (OS) remain limited. Dynamic thiol-disulfide homeostasis (TDH) is vital for antioxidant protection, and ischemia-modified albumin (IMA) serves as a marker of OS. This study aimed to measure serum TDH parameters and IMA levels in acromegaly patients, comparing them with healthy controls.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This cross-sectional study consecutively included 81 patients and 55 controls, matched for age, gender, and body mass index. Serum levels of native thiol, total thiol, and disulfide (TDH parameters) were measured using the automated spectrophotometric method developed by Erel and Neselioglu, along with serum IMA levels.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>In patients, serum native and total thiol levels were significantly lower (p = 0.005 and p = 0.007), while serum IMA levels were significantly higher (p = 0.001). Disulfide levels were similar. Patients with active disease (N = 32), patients in remission (N = 49), and controls (N = 55) were compared. In post-hoc analyses; serum TDH parameters and IMA levels were similar in remission and active disease patients. Native and total thiol levels were significantly lower in patients in remission compared to controls (p = 0.01 and p = 0.04). IMA levels were significantly higher in patients in remission compared to controls (p = 0.04). Serum thiol levels positively correlated with serum insulin-like growth factor-1 levels and negatively with age and disease duration, while age independently exerted a negative impact on serum thiol levels.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Our findings may indicate increased OS in the acromegalic process, which may contribute to the development of acromegaly and its related complications and comorbidities.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 2","pages":"46"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11972178/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143788654","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Clinical, surgical, and endocrine outcome following treatment of posterior pituitary tumors: a retrospective cohort study.","authors":"Natalia Kremenevski, Oliver Schnell, Roland Coras, Michael Buchfelder, Nirjhar Hore","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01518-z","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01518-z","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>This study evaluates the clinical presentation, endocrine dysfunction, surgical outcome, and long-term prognosis in patients with histologically confirmed posterior pituitary tumors (PPTs).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A retrospective cohort study was conducted on 19 patients treated for PPTs at a single center between 2000 and 2023. Data on clinical, endocrine, and surgical outcomes were collected and analyzed.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The cohort included 3 pituicytomas (PCs), 8 granular cell tumors (GCTs), and 8 spindle cell oncocytomas (SCOs) patients, with a female predominance (58%) and a mean age of 57.2 ± 13.2 years. Symptoms leading to diagnosis were headache (31.6%), visual impairment (21%), and sexual dysfunction (10.5%). GCT patients had higher preoperative BMI (34.49 ± 5.72) compared to PC (22.12 ± 2.40) and SCO (24.74 ± 4.24) patients (p < 0.01). Postoperative BMI increased across all groups, with GCTs patients showing the steepest rise (p < 0.01). Endocrine dysfunction largely persisted or worsened after surgery, with limited recovery at follow-up. Surgical approaches included transsphenoidal (48%) and transcranial (52%), achieving gross total resection in 58% of cases. Tumor recurrence occurred in 16% of patients, all requiring adjuvant radiation therapy. Tumor-specific survival at 5 years was 100% with an overall survival rate of 80% where non-tumor-related comorbidities accounted for the observed mortality.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>PPTs are rare tumors with significant endocrine and metabolic consequences. While surgical management is associated with favorable tumor-specific survival, persistent endocrine dysfunction and postoperative progressive BMI underscore the need for long-term follow-up and targeted interventions. These findings contribute to the understanding of PPT biology and support the development of optimized management strategies.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 2","pages":"45"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11972177/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143788443","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genetic models of Cushing's disease : From cells, in vivo transgenic models to human pituitary organoids.","authors":"Hiba Hashmi, Ryusaku Matsumoto, Dylan Corcoran, Yasuhiko Kawakami, Takako Araki","doi":"10.1007/s11102-025-01516-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11102-025-01516-1","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cushing's disease (CD) is caused by pituitary tumors that overproduce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH); however, effective medical treatments remain limited, significantly impairing patients' quality of life and prognosis. Despite extensive molecular analyses, the pathogenesis of CD remains unclear. Although previous molecular studies have relied heavily on rodent-derived cells and rodent transgenic models, significant species differences exist in the tumorigenesis of CD between humans and rodents. To date, an established human CD cell model is lacking, as human CD cells are limited in availability and sustainability over time. Additionally, the gene modifications used in transgenic models do not necessarily reflect the causative genes in CD. CD tumors exhibit wide phenotypic heterogeneity, which further complicates the development of an ideal genetic model. In this review, we provide an analysis of 11 genetic models used to study CD, outlining their historical development, strengths, and limitations. Additionally, we discuss the ongoing development of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived pituitary organoids and further describe various models of pituitary organoids as an emerging novel approach to studying CD. By comparing all these models, we highlight the necessity of advancing genetic models to improve our understanding and treatment of CD.</p>","PeriodicalId":20202,"journal":{"name":"Pituitary","volume":"28 2","pages":"47"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143788698","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}