Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine最新文献

{"title":"RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSES OF THE NEUTROPHIL TO LYMPHOCYTE RATIO IN PRIMATES HOUSED AT A SINGLE ZOO.","authors":"Stephanie Kaufman, Balazs Szladovits, Ashley N Edes","doi":"10.1638/2024-0128","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2024-0128","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is a hematological parameter that has been identified as a biomarker of inflammation and stress. High NLR has been associated with cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, septic shock, and advanced tumors in humans, but research in animals is more limited. Studies utilizing NLR in nonhuman primates have mostly focused on the impacts of age and sex but have also analyzed the effects of rearing and acute stressors. This study included 377 individuals from 23 species of nonhuman primates housed at the Saint Louis Zoo and investigated 1) the effect of demographic differences, including age, sex, and rearing, on NLR; 2) NLR as a marker of stress by comparing NLRs from samples taken during routine examinations versus those taken during clinical events; 3) whether the method of immobilization was associated with differences in NLR; and 4) whether routine NLR was associated with mortality risk. Data were analyzed by species using generalized linear mixed-effect models or, for mortality risk, by taxonomic groups using Cox proportional hazards models. The effects of demographic variables differed by species; for example, the effect of sex on NLR was significant in only four species: mongoose lemurs (<i>Eulemur mongoz</i>), black-and-white ruffed lemurs (<i>Varecia variegata</i>), Goeldi's monkeys (<i>Callimico goeldii</i>), and cotton-top tamarins (<i>Saginus oedipus</i>). At the taxonomic group level, NLRs from clinical events were significantly higher than those from routine events in lemurs and African and Eurasian monkeys but not Central and South American monkeys or great apes; at the species level, significant differences were observed only in black lemurs (<i>Eulemur macaco</i>), ring-tailed lemurs (<i>Lemur catta</i>), lion-tailed macaques (<i>Macaca silenus</i>), and gorillas (<i>Gorilla gorilla</i>). When NLR varied significantly by the method of immobilization, inhalation and hand injection were associated with the lowest NLRs. Routine NLR did not predict mortality risk for any taxonomic group.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"213-227"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391265","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Retrospective Evaluation of Deslorelin Acetate Implant Use in Several Captive Crane Species at One Facility.","authors":"Alexis Davidson, Diana Boon","doi":"10.1638/2025-0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0004","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In captive cranes, chronic reproductive activity, aggression, and feather destructive behaviors are observed, and deslorelin implants have been used at the International Crane Foundation (ICF) to attempt to suppress gonadal hormone production. These sustained-release gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist implants are generally effective in suppressing gonadal activity in mammals for 12-24 mon. However, in birds, the efficacy is substantially less, with greater variation in response and generally a much shorter duration of effect served. For this retrospective study, the medical record database of ICF was searched for deslorelin use in cranes. Thirteen individuals having received a total of 67 implants were identified for inclusion in this retrospective study. Seven species were represented. Cranes received implants to either stop or slow egg production (<i>n</i> = 56 treatments) or improve behaviors such as aggression and feather destructive behavior (<i>n</i> = 11 treatments). There were varied responses, with some individuals continuing to lay eggs an average of 30 d after treatment and others ceasing to lay eggs for the rest of the year. There were also variations in response between years within the same individuals. Aggression improved following treatment (<i>n</i> = 2 treatments total, <i>n</i> = 2 individuals). There was minimal response in relation to feather destructive behavior (<i>n</i> = 9 treatments total, <i>n</i> = 3 individuals).</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"365-371"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391232","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"INVESTIGATION OF ANESTHESIA TECHNIQUES IN PAPER KITE BUTTERFLIES (<i>IDEA LEUCONOE</i>).","authors":"Samuel M Tucker, Gregory A Lewbart, Yang Qu, Ulrich Hartmond, Julie A Balko","doi":"10.1638/2025-0082","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0082","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Despite the frequency of invertebrates in research, zoological, and personal collections, sedation and anesthesia in these species remains poorly studied. This study assessed anesthetic techniques in paper kite butterflies (<i>Idea leuconoe</i>). Thirty-six recently emerged butterflies were individually placed in 1.9 L air-tight containers and randomly exposed to one of six treatments (n = 6/group): 5% isoflurane via vaporizer (2 L min-¹, fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) 1.0); (V), 0.5 mL (CB0.5) or 3.0 mL (CB3) liquid isoflurane on a cotton ball (FiO₂ 0.21); 100% carbon dioxide via flowmeter (2 L min-¹) (CO₂); cooling at 2.78°C, or no treatment (control) (CT). Three min (V, CB0.5, CB3, CO₂) or 10 min (°C) following recumbency, butterflies were removed from exposure, manually manipulated, and monitored for return to upright posture. Times to recumbency, return to upright, and response to manipulation were recorded. Collected data were compared between groups (significance <i>P</i> < 0.05). Except in CT, all butterflies achieved recumbency. Median (range) time to recumbency was 1.3 (0.5-3.6), 2.8 (1.6-4.6), 1.7 (0.9-2.9), 1.2 (0.8-2.2), and 1.4 (1.0-3.5) min in V, CB0.5, CB3, CO₂, and °C, respectively (<i>P</i> = 0.106). Median (range) time to upright was 9.3 (0.7-15.2), 13.8 (6.0-24.0), 14.9 (8.2-26.6), 1.3 (0.9-9.0), and 9.6 (3.6-30.0) min in V, CB0.5, CB3, CO₂, and °C, respectively (<i>P</i> = 0.019). All butterflies recovered uneventfully. This is the first peer-reviewed evaluation of anesthetic techniques in butterflies.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"289-296"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391237","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF SERUM AMYLOID A AND PROTEIN ELECTROPHORESIS IN THE TIGER (<i>PANTHERA TIGRIS</i>) AND LION (<i>PANTHERA LEO</i>).","authors":"April Romagnano, Kian S Martin, Scott G Martin, Lauren A Wadsworth, K Simba Wiltz, Jose Ramon Salas, Brooke Hubbard, Fabiano Montiani-Ferreira, Carolyn Cray","doi":"10.1638/2025-0102","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0102","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Serum protein electrophoresis and acute phase protein quantitation have been demonstrated as important tools in clinical pathology testing of nondomesticated mammals. The goal of this study was to validate a commercially available reagent for serum amyloid A (SAA) and obtain preliminary data for SAA and protein electrophoresis in lions and tigers. Serum samples from 32 tigers (<i>Panthera tigris</i>), including 16 clinically normal animals, and 29 lions (<i>Panthera leo</i>), including 22 clinically normal animals, were obtained from private facilities in south and central Florida between 2014 and 2025. SAA was defined as a major acute phase protein (APP) in these species, with 10-100-fold increases in clinically abnormal animals. The SAA reagent was validated for use based on linearity under dilution and coefficient of variation analyses. Given the size of the sample sets, reference intervals were generated for lions and descriptive statistics were performed for tigers. Significant increases in SAA as well as alpha-2 and beta globulins in clinically abnormal vs normal lions and tigers were observed (<i>P</i> < 0.05). This preliminary assessment provides valuable information for the use of SAA and protein electrophoresis and lays the groundwork to establish robust reference intervals as well as a clinical validation of the use of these assays for these two species.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"238-244"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391240","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"PHARMACOKINETICS OF A SINGLE INTRAMUSCULAR DOSE OF ROBENACOXIB IN TIGERS (<i>PANTHERA TIGRIS</i>).","authors":"Liandrie Swanepoel, Sherry Cox, Andrew Cushing","doi":"10.1638/2025-0106","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0106","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>To investigate the pharmacokinetics of robenacoxib in tigers (<i>Panthera tigris</i>), a pilot study was performed on nine adult tigers by using four doses-2, 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mg/kg-administered as a single injection either SC or IM. A dose of 0.25 mg/kg administered IM was selected based on pilot data and ease of administration to conscious tigers. A pharmacokinetic study of robenacoxib was performed using a sparse sampling protocol with eight additional adult tigers. Blood samples were collected at time 0, 15, 30, 60, and 90 min and 2, 2.25, 8, 12, and 20 h postadministration. Plasma samples were analyzed for robenacoxib concentrations by using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Mean maximum observed plasma concentration was 686 ng/ml, time to maximum concentration was 1 h, and elimination half-life was 3.2 h. Plasma concentrations remained >10 ng/ml (considered therapeutic in domestic cat studies) up to 12 h after a single 0.25-mg/kg IM dose was administered to tigers. This study represents the first pharmacokinetic investigation of robenacoxib in a nondomestic felid species.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"372-377"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"TOTAL MAXILLARY BEAK RECONSTRUCTION IN A SOLOMON'S COCKATOO (<i>CACATUA DUCORPSII</i>) BY USING A SKULL-ANCHORED TITANIUM MESH PLATE PROSTHESIS: A NOVEL SURGICAL APPROACH OVERCOMING KERATIN-DEPENDENT FIXATION LIMITATIONS-A CASE REPORT.","authors":"Sung Su Park, Hajin Jeong, Juwon Kang, Ho Jae Han","doi":"10.1638/2025-0079","DOIUrl":"10.1638/2025-0079","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Traumatic total maxillary beak avulsion in psittacines presents a significant surgical challenge due to the absence of residual keratinized or osseous tissue for conventional fixation, as well as the beak's critical roles in feeding and behavior. Existing repair techniques rely on anchoring to remaining beak structures and are therefore unsuitable for complete beak loss cases. This report describes a novel surgical approach for total maxillary beak reconstruction in a Solomon's cockatoo (<i>Cacatua ducorpsii</i>) with complete upper beak avulsion caused by intraspecific aggression. A titanium mesh plate was contoured to replicate the natural curvature of the maxillary beak and rigidly anchored to the frontal bone by using cortical screws, providing immediate mechanical stability. The external beak shape and surface were restored using dental acrylic resin to mimic natural keratin texture and form. The prosthesis allowed for early functional recovery, enabling the bird to grasp, manipulate objects, and consume a normal diet within 1 mon postoperatively. This technique addresses the fundamental limitation of keratin-dependent fixation by using the skull as a stable anchorage point, with a titanium mesh plate providing structural support sufficient for functional use. The dental acrylic overlay restores esthetic and functional outcomes critical to quality of life. This novel approach may present a promising surgical option for avian patients in cases of total rhinotheca loss previously considered beyond surgical repair.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"297-301"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CALCINOSIS CIRCUMSCRIPTA IN MULTIPLE SPECIES OF TORTOISES (<i>TESTUDINIDAE</i>).","authors":"Stormy J Perry, Michael M Garner, Angela M Lennox, Robert J Ossiboff, Sarah B Sulkosky, Michael Lewin-Smith, Thomas H Boyer","doi":"10.1638/2024-0085","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2024-0085","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Chelonians are popular as pets and in zoological settings. Calcinosis circumscripta has been identified as a cause of morbidity in various chelonian species. Between 2011 and 2023, 13 tortoise (<i>Testudinidae</i>) samples were submitted to a private diagnostic pathology service, most commonly for a mass around the neck or submandibular region. Sulcata (<i>Centrochelys sulcata</i>) tortoises appeared overrepresented (10 of 13). The masses were radio-opaque, firm and multinodular with a chalky white appearance on section. Ten cases were diagnosed by biopsy and the remaining three cases were diagnosed at necropsy. Mineral analysis of one case confirmed calcium phosphate deposition. Gram-positive cocci were identified in 3 lesions. Treatment consisted of debulking and antibiotics. The lesions recurred in 4 of 10 cases. Calcinosis circumscripta should be considered as a differential diagnosis for a nodular lesion in the connective tissue of chelonians. Surgical removal provided a good quality of life depending on the location of mass. The pathogenesis of calcinosis circumscripta in chelonians is unclear, but the presence of Gram-positive cocci in some of the lesions suggests an association with bacterial granulomas.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"199-205"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"USE OF GUAIFENESIN-KETAMINE-XYLAZINE INFUSION FOR MAINTENANCE OF ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE PREZEWALSKI HORSES (<i>EQUUS FERUS PRZEWALSKI</i> ): A CASE SERIES.","authors":"Jennifer Hausmann, Ellen Wiedner, Stephanie Hinkle, James G Johnson","doi":"10.1638/2025-0122","DOIUrl":"10.1638/2025-0122","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This case series documents the use of triple drip, a combination of IV guaifenesin, ketamine, and xylazine (GKX) to extend the length of anesthesia in zoo-owned Przewalski horses (<i>Equus ferus przewalskii</i>). In three separate procedures involving two different animals, GKX was used to prolong and deepen the plane of anesthesia for 90 to 120 min beyond an initial induction dart containing ketamine, butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine. The depth of anesthesia was sufficient to permit surgical excision of SC abscesses and other procedures. Throughout the anesthetic events, the horses breathed spontaneously and maintained normal cardiorespiratory parameters, demonstrated no response to noxious stimuli, and had excellent muscle relaxation. Recoveries were smooth in all cases. Development of anesthetic protocols without ultrapotent opioids has become a priority in zoological medicine due to decreased drug availability as well as safety considerations. This is the first report of an entirely ultrapotent narcotic-free anesthetic protocol for intermediate to extended length procedures in Przewalski horses.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"406-411"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"LARGE-SCALE DISEASE-ASSOCIATED MORTALITY EVENT OF EASTERN BOX TURTLES (<i>TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA</i>) CONFISCATED DUE TO THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE.","authors":"Maris J Daleo, Charles J Innis, Laura A Adamovicz, Christopher J Bonar, Dave Collins, Carly R Harkey, Melissa Joblon, Adam Kennedy, Jessica N Lovstad, Brianne E Phillips, Karen A Terio, Julie Thompson-Slacum, Kathryn A Tuxbury, Kimberlee B Wojick, Matthew C Allender","doi":"10.1638/2025-0081","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0081","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Eastern box turtles (<i>Terrapene carolina carolina</i>) are declining range-wide due to anthropogenic factors, including the illegal wildlife trade. Infectious diseases that cause high morbidity and mortality, such as frog virus 3 (family <i>Iridoviridae</i>, genus <i>Ranavirus</i>, species <i>Rana1</i>), may also threaten this species in managed-care and free-ranging settings. High rates of infectious disease transmission are documented within the illegal wildlife trade; however, the impact of diseases on health, survival, and ultimate disposition of confiscated turtles is not thoroughly described. In July 2021, 96 eastern box turtles were seized by the US Fish and Wildlife Service while illegally en route to Asia and were relocated to three zoos via the Association of Zoos and Aquariums' Saving Animals from Extinction American Turtles program. From July-August, 35 individuals were selected for pathogen surveillance, of which (94%) were qPCR positive for frog virus 3 (FV3; recently renamed <i>Ranavirus rana1</i>), 100% were positive for <i>Mycoplasmopsis</i> sp. (BTMyco), 80% were positive for <i>Terrapene</i> herpesvirus 1 (TerHV1), and 60% were positive for <i>Terrapene</i> adenovirus (TerAdv). At least two pathogens were co-detected in each turtle. Forty of the original 96 turtles died (31 of the 35 tested turtles), and in September 2021, the surviving 56 (4 from the subset of 35) turtles were transferred to the University of Illinois. These remaining turtles tested qPCR positive for FV3 (32%), BTMyco (64%), TerAdv (64%), TerHV1 (66%), <i>Terrapene</i> herpesvirus 2 (18%), and human-pathogenic <i>Leptospira</i> spp. (2%). Multiple pathogens were co-detected in 41 turtles (73%). All 56 turtles brumated over winter in 2021 and were found dead in May 2022, with autolysis limiting diagnostic necropsy. The complete mortality of 96 confiscated eastern box turtles demonstrates that poor health and disease transmission negatively impact the welfare and survival of illegally traded animals.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"228-237"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"BLOOD ANALYTE CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH MUSTH IN TWO CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANT (<i>ELEPHAS MAXIMUS</i>) BULLS.","authors":"Rashea L Minor, Ashley N Edes, Michelle L Kanarr, Sarah A Cannizzo, John A Griffioen, Nicole I Stacy, Carolyn Cray, Steve Paris, Janine L Brown, Kimberly L Rainwater","doi":"10.1638/2025-0064","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1638/2025-0064","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Musth is a normal behavioral phenomenon characterized by postpubertal, periodic elevations in circulating testosterone, resulting in behavioral and physical changes in sexually mature, healthy Asian (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) and African (<i>Loxodonta africana</i>) elephant bulls. To date, the understanding of the role that musth plays on blood analytes is limited. The objective of this study was to assess serial blood analyte data (hematology, serum biochemistry, acute phase proteins, cortisol, and testosterone) relative to periods of behavioral musth vs nonmusth in two Asian elephant bulls housed at a single institution over three years. Linear and generalized linear models were used to test for differences between musth and nonmusth periods, as well as for associations of each biomarker with testosterone. In both bulls, platelet count (PLT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), cortisol, serum amyloid A (SAA), and testosterone were statistically significantly higher during musth compared with nonmusth periods. Both bulls also displayed positive covariations of testosterone with PLT and mature heterophils. Blood urea nitrogen had a significant inverse association with testosterone in both bulls. These changes may reflect physiologic stress, systemic inflammation, and decreased urea synthesis during musth. There were otherwise limited consistencies in blood analytes between bulls, possibly due to sample size, sampling period, or individual variations. For instance, ALP, c-glutamyl transferase, SAA, and testosterone were statistically significantly higher and considered clinically relevant during musth periods in bull 1; however, similar observations for clinical relevance were absent in bull 2. Though results should be interpreted with due consideration of biological variation and other factors in individual bulls, these data provide novel information for interpretation of routine blood analytes of Asian elephant bulls, for informing clinical decision-making, and for contributing to the understanding of physiologic changes during musth periods.</p>","PeriodicalId":17667,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine","volume":"57 2","pages":"356-364"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148391280","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}