Journal of Eye Movement Research最新文献

{"title":"Rehabilitation Oculomotor Screening Evaluation in Persons with Traumatic Brain Injury.","authors":"Aimy Vadeboncoeur, Chelsey Lai Kwan, Ada Mocanu, Sarah Schipper, Olivia Taylor, Elizabeth Dannenbaum, Joyce Fung","doi":"10.3390/jemr19040070","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19040070","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background</b>: Many individuals with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) exhibit oculomotor dysfunctions that impact their daily functioning. As current clinical screening tools are limited, we have created and pilot-tested the Rehabilitation Oculomotor Screening Evaluation (ROSE) previously in a small sample of people with acquired brain injuries and neurotypical participants. The current study aims to validate ROSE in persons with TBI, focusing on mild TBI (mTBI). <b>Methods</b>: Participants with TBI (<i>n</i> = 25) completed different clinical scales, including ROSE, Sensory Organization Test (SOT) for standing balance, Reintegration to Normal Living Index (RNLI), Timed Up and Go (TUG) for mobility, and a visual analogue scale for the subjective perception of visual vertigo. Neurotypical individuals (<i>n</i> = 24) who were age- and sex-matched completed only ROSE. <b>Results</b>: The group with mTBI (<i>n</i> = 18) had significantly higher ROSE scores compared to the neurotypical group, with a large effect size. Significant correlation was found between ROSE and RNLI scores, but not with other clinical outcomes. <b>Conclusions</b>: Significant between-group difference in ROSE scores and their association with RNLI scores suggest that ROSE is a valid tool in detecting oculomotor dysfunction in TBI. Future studies should continue the validation of ROSE in other TBI and neurologic populations and in larger sample sizes.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13398043/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148578883","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Phase-Sensitive Gaze Allocation in a Progressive Calligraphy Task.","authors":"Yujun Liu, Nina Xie, Xutang Tong, Yuanyuan Wang","doi":"10.3390/jemr19040069","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19040069","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Eye-movement studies of manual production often average gaze across an entire trial, obscuring how visual information use changes once actions begin. We separated the pre-writing and writing phases in a fixed progressive Chinese calligraphy task. Thirty-seven postgraduate students completed two style-guided transfer (SGT) pages, a worked example, and two evolution-based mapping (EBM) pages; 34 contributed usable gaze data. On SGT pages, reference allocation fell from 0.626 before writing to 0.131 during writing, whereas the share of reference viewing directed to diagnostic tokens rose from 0.473 to 0.601. On EBM pages, allocation to the cue-plus-context display fell from 0.825 to 0.447 after pen onset but remained substantial; cue share and context coverage also declined. Participant-level process blocks did not improve quality models. In exploratory page-level EBM analyses, greater pre-writing context coverage was associated with higher product quality. These findings identify pen onset as a useful boundary for analyzing visual information use in constrained production: external sampling is greatest before writing, and task-specific re-access persists during execution. Because the task order was fixed, page-family differences cannot be separated from practice or scaffolding. Phase-specific area-of-interest measures can therefore add process information to product scores without treating gaze as a direct measure of cognition.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13397871/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148578846","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of Surface Texture and Color on the Visuo-Tactile Perception of Polyurethane Synthetic Leather for Automotive Seats.","authors":"Yuxin Yuan, Shulan Yu, Zhaolong Zhu, Dong Jin, Yu Sun","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030068","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030068","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Polyurethane synthetic leather is a widely used covering material in automotive interiors, and its surface coating characteristics directly determine the occupant experience. However, the underlying mechanisms by which these characteristics influence visuo-tactile perception in the context of new energy vehicles (NEVs) require further investigation. In this study, a composite experimental matrix was constructed by combining surface textures with distinct roughness gradients and representative colors extracted via data mining within the HSV color space. Targeting these two surface coating characteristics-color and texture-systematic evaluations were conducted across three independent perception stages: purely visual, purely tactile, and combined visuo-tactile. Eye-tracking metrics, specifically pupil diameter and total fixation duration, were extracted and cross-analyzed alongside multidimensional subjective evaluations. The results indicate that surface texture exerts a significant main effect on both perceived tactile softness and pleasantness, whereas the impact of color variation is remarkably weak. Furthermore, highly complex surface textures lead to prolonged fixation durations, reflecting increased exploratory interest and the high perceptual salience of intricate details rather than mere cognitive workload. Moreover, significant differences in pupil diameter were observed across texture conditions, potentially reflecting the combined influence of low-level image properties and higher-order texture perception. Concurrently, an interference effect of visual features on tactile perception was observed; specifically, the introduction of visual cues (encompassing color and texture) significantly diminished the pleasantness experienced during tactile interaction. These findings elucidate the intrinsic connections between surface coating characteristics and users' visuo-tactile perception, offering important theoretical guidance and practical implications for optimizing the surface design of automotive polyurethane synthetic leather and enhancing the overall occupant experience.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13301387/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317411","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Conventional Versus Virtual Reality-Based Hess-Lancaster Assessment: Agreement and Repeatability in Ocular Motility Evaluation.","authors":"Francisco Javier Povedano-Montero, Álvaro Perales-Serrano, Daniela León Lobo, Rut González-Jiménez, Ricardo Bernárdez-Vilaboa, Juan E Cedrún-Sánchez","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030067","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030067","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The conventional Hess-Lancaster test is widely used to assess ocular misalignment across diagnostic gaze positions, but it relies on subjective responses and manual recording. Virtual reality may provide a more standardized framework for ocular motility assessment.</p><p><strong>Objectives: </strong>To evaluate the agreement and within-method repeatability of point-by-point deviation measurements obtained with the conventional Hess-Lancaster test and a VR-based Hess-Lancaster assessment implemented in Dicopt Pro.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This cross-sectional observational study included 52 adults with suspected or diagnosed ocular motility disorders. Participants underwent both assessments using the same predefined gaze positions. Agreement was assessed using Bland-Altman analysis, concordance correlation coefficients, mean absolute differences, and mixed-effects modeling. Repeatability was evaluated in a subset with repeated measurements using session-to-session differences and intraclass correlation coefficients.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The VR-based assessment showed moderate agreement with the conventional test, with a mean concordance correlation coefficient of 0.57 for both eyes. Mean bias was 1.22 prism diopters for the right eye and 0.10 prism diopters for the left eye. Repeatability estimates were moderate-to-good, with ICC values ranging from 0.62 to 0.83, although repeated measurements were available only in a subset of participants.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The VR-based Hess-Lancaster assessment showed small mean differences and moderate agreement with the conventional test, although both methods should be interpreted within the context of the complete clinical examination.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13302422/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317397","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reading to Translate or Translating to Read? Modeling Translators' Eye Movements with Multilingual Pre-Trained Models.","authors":"Yiyu Zhang, Xiajing Yao, Dechao Li","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030066","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030066","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Translation and post-editing both integrate reading into bilingual text production, yet it remains unclear which computational predictors from multilingual pre-trained models best account for translators' reading patterns across task types and translation directions. We recruited twenty-six Chinese L1 translators who completed en→zh and zh→en translation and post-editing tasks, yielding 104 eye-tracking sessions. Dependent measures were source reading time (TrtS), target reading time (TrtT), and target production duration (Dur). Predictors were derived from two model architectures, a decoder-only language model (LM) and an encoder-decoder neural machine translation (NMT) model, and they included monolingual surprisal, translation surprisal with source context, and attention features computed from models' internal weights. Analyses showed that LM surprisal provided the strongest account of target reading, while source reading was most strongly predicted by encoder self-attention with LM surprisal, a robust secondary predictor, and target production duration drew on both LM and NMT translation surprisal. Direction effects were broader than task effects, especially on target measures. These findings suggest that although translation reading is bilingual in task structure, cumulative reading time is best explained by monolingual LM surprisal, whereas production duration additionally reflects NMT translation surprisal and revision behavior.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13301397/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Correlation Between Accommodative Facility and Light-Evoked Pupil Responses in Individuals with History of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury.","authors":"Curt Fritts-Davis, Andrew T E Hartwick, Marjean T Kulp","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030065","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030065","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Previous studies have shown those with a history of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) have altered pupillary light responses compared with those without a history of TBI. Those with a history of TBI are also more likely to have accommodative deficits. We investigated the relationship between light-evoked pupil dynamics and accommodative function in individuals who have previously experienced a TBI.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A total of 17 participants with a history of mild TBI were recruited. Pupil metrics were measured using a commercial pupillometer and included baseline diameter, latency, constriction amplitude, average constriction velocity, peak constriction velocity and peak dilation velocity. Accommodative function was assessed using clinical measurements of facility and amplitude. Pupil metrics were compared among those with versus without accommodative dysfunction.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>One-way ANCOVA testing (controlling for age and time since most recent TBI) comparing groups with and without accommodative dysfunction showed that those with accommodative dysfunction had significantly larger light-evoked pupil constriction amplitudes (<i>p</i> = 0.037) and significantly faster average constriction velocity (<i>p</i> = 0.007) compared with those without accommodative dysfunction. No significant differences were observed for other pupil metrics (<i>p</i> > 0.05 for all). ANCOVA testing (controlling for age and time since TBI) to determine whether decreased amplitude of accommodation or facility was more strongly related to the differences in pupil metrics observed between those with versus without accommodative dysfunction, showed significantly larger light-evoked pupil constriction amplitudes (<i>p</i> = 0.007) and significantly faster average constriction velocity (<i>p</i> = 0.002) among those with reduced accommodative facility compared with those with normal accommodative facility. No statistically significant differences were observed between those with reduced versus normal accommodative amplitude (<i>p</i> ≥ 0.07). Among all participants, monocular accommodative facility measures were significantly correlated with greater pupil constriction amplitude (right eye: rho = -0.721, <i>p</i> = 0.001; left eye: rho = -0.65, <i>p</i> = 0.005), and greater average constriction velocity (right eye: rho = -0.58, <i>p</i> = 0.015; left eye: rho = -0.57, <i>p</i> = 0.016).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The results of this small-sample study suggest that accommodative function and light-evoked pupillary dynamics are correlated in individuals with a history of TBI. Those with accommodative dysfunction showed greater pupil constriction amplitudes and velocities and this relationship may reflect shared autonomic or oculomotor mechanisms.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13301583/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317414","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An Eye-Tracking and Forecasting Experiment on Consumer Purchasing Decisions Through Product Reviews.","authors":"Seda Busra Sarac, Kazim Baris Atici, Ismail Bezci, Ata Erinc Dansuk, Fatma Semira Yildirim","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030064","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030064","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study aims to provide insight into consumer purchasing decisions by integrating eye-tracking data with forecasting techniques. First, the study investigates how consumption motives (hedonic vs. utilitarian) and purchasing purposes (for oneself vs. for others) influence visual attention and decision-making processes. An experimental design was conducted with 128 participants in a simulated online shopping environment, where eye-tracking data were collected based on fixation counts and durations across defined Areas of Interest (AOIs). Second, a total of 20 input features were collected, comprising fixation counts and fixation durations for 10 review-related Areas of Interest (AOIs), and these features were evaluated across the experimental scenarios, while the binary output variable represented the participant's purchase decision. These biometric features, together with scenario information, were used to forecast purchasing decisions using six machine-learning methods, including Artificial Neural Networks, Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, K-Nearest Neighbors, Naive Bayes, and Logistic Regression. The results indicate that consumers' visual attention aligns with their consumption motives and purchasing purposes, revealing distinct gaze patterns across different scenarios. In the forecasting phase, the accuracy of different methods for predicting purchasing decisions using review-related eye-tracking data is evaluated. Support Vector Machines achieved the highest overall accuracy, approximately 59-60% across the evaluated datasets, compared with a validation-specific majority-class baseline of 53.85%. This corresponds to a modest improvement of approximately 5.15-6.15 percentage points over the naive benchmark. Overall, the findings suggest that objectively recorded review-related eye-tracking data can be operationalized as behavioral input features in a machine-learning-based purchase-decision classification framework, highlighting the methodological value of integrating eye-tracking insights with consumer behavior forecasting.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13300813/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317408","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cognitive Mechanisms of Referential Ambiguity Resolution in L2 Russian by Chinese Learners: Evidence from Eye-Tracking.","authors":"Tian Ran, Lijun Guo, Hong Xu","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030063","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030063","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A central question in second language (L2) sentence processing concerns how learners resolve referential ambiguity in real time, particularly when cues from their first language (L1) conflict with those of the target language. Given the substantial typological distance between Chinese (an analytic language) and Russian (a highly inflectional language), this study employs eye-tracking methodology to investigate the developmental trajectory of the cognitive mechanisms in referential ambiguity resolution among Chinese learners of Russian. The results revealed proficiency-related differences in ambiguity processing. Both proficiency groups showed increased processing difficulty when encountering ambiguous pronouns, indicating that referential ambiguity imposed a measurable online cost. High-proficiency learners read more efficiently overall, whereas low-proficiency learners showed a stronger first-mention anchoring pattern. These findings suggest that increasing L2 proficiency is associated with changes in processing efficiency and cue weighting during referential resolution. Notably, even high-proficiency learners did not categorically rely on Russian gender agreement to resolve reference in the morphologically disambiguated condition, suggesting that the integration of morphosyntactic cues into real-time reference resolution remains effortful at advanced proficiency. The study contributes eye-tracking evidence on how Chinese-speaking learners manage referential ambiguity in a morphologically rich L2.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13301071/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Characterizing Visual Neurosurgical Expertise in Brain MRI Visualization Using Eye-Tracking and 3D Fractal Dimension Analysis.","authors":"Poonam Kumari, Ghasem Azemi, Carlo Russo, Antonio Di Ieva","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030062","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030062","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Eye-tracking has been utilized to characterize visual behavior in medical image visualization and interpretation, yet neurosurgeons remain underrepresented. Characterizing neurosurgery-specific visual expertise is important for understanding expert search strategies, informing training, and developing computational models. This study examined gaze behavior in naïve observers (<i>N_p</i> = 29), neurosurgery registrars (<i>N_p</i> = 16), and consultant neurosurgeons (<i>N_p</i> = 24), viewing normal (<i>N_p</i> = 20) and pathological (<i>N_p</i> = 19) brain MR images under a free-viewing paradigm. To capture expertise-related characteristics, we analyzed two features at each fixation location: (i) fixation duration, reflecting temporal allocation of visual attention, and (ii) three-dimensional fractal dimension (3DFD) around each fixation location, quantifying local structural complexity. To assess pathological-type effects, we grouped similar pathologies into five stimulus groups. Linear mixed-effects modelling revealed systematic expertise-related differences, with experts exhibiting longer fixation durations in pathological stimulus groups and pathology-type-dependent complexity sampling. Combined fixation duration and 3DFD features captured complementary aspects of visual expertise, improving Random Forest classifier's accuracy (>93%) compared to individual features, for all five stimulus groups. These findings highlight neurosurgery-specific markers of visual expertise and demonstrate that combining behavioral and image-derived features could underpin computational models and training tools that emulate expert-level strategies in neurosurgical image interpretation. Future work should evaluate its applicability to other medical domains.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13301434/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317456","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Geometry of Suspicion: Visual Exploration Patterns in Email Phishing Detection.","authors":"Francesco Di Nocera, Lorenzo Arciulo, Giorgia Tempestini, Pierpaolo Zivi, Giulio Errico, Fabio Ferlazzo","doi":"10.3390/jemr19030060","DOIUrl":"10.3390/jemr19030060","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study examined visual exploration strategies in phishing-email detection by integrating conventional AOI-based eye-tracking measures with a complementary scene-based indicator, the Nearest Neighbor Index (NNI), to capture the global spatial organization of fixations. Thirty-two volunteers completed an email-classification task involving 106 static email stimuli; data from 30 participants were included in the final analyses. For each stimulus, participants judged whether the email was authentic or phishing, allowing for the computation of eye-tracking metrics across Signal Detection Theory classification outcomes. Concerning the NNI, the results showed that the spatial distribution of fixations was higher for suspicious than for non-suspicious emails, indicating a broader visual exploration pattern under higher task demands. More importantly, correct and incorrect responses differed reliably: hits were associated with more dispersed and regular fixation patterns, whereas false alarms were associated with more clustered scanning; misses showed a descriptively similar tendency that did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Participants also responded faster when correct than when incorrect. When cybersecurity awareness (CAIN) was included as a mean-centered covariate, the primary effects of Signal and Outcome on NNI and decision time remained significant, indicating that the experimental effects are robust to individual differences in cybersecurity knowledge. However, CAIN did not emerge as a reliable predictor of eye-tracking measures within these models, suggesting that its role operates more at the level of classification performance than moment-by-moment gaze organization.</p>","PeriodicalId":15813,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Eye Movement Research","volume":"19 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13302592/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148317387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}