Frontiers in Neuroscience最新文献

{"title":"Oral administration of kratom leaf extract alleviates anxiety-like behavior, urinary bladder pain, voiding dysfunction, and bladder hypercontractility via attenuating muscarinic receptor response in male mice exposed to chronic water avoidance stress.","authors":"Sarunnuch Sattayachiti, Panida Chumpong, Dania Cheaha, Nattapon Rotpenpian, Ekkasit Kumarnsit, Nipaporn Konthapakdee","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1810337","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1810337","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Psychological stress causes and deteriorates interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome with urinary frequency, incontinence, bladder pain and urgency. The major alkaloid of kratom (<i>Mitragyna speciosa</i>), mitragynine, shows analgesic, anxiolytic, and smooth muscle relaxant effects. However, the effects of kratom leaf extract on stress-induced anxiety-like behavior, urinary bladder pain and urinary bladder dysfunction remain unknown. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effect of kratom leaf extract administration on anxiety-like behaviors, bladder pain, bladder contractile properties, and mast cell number in mice exposed to water avoidance stress. Male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to water avoidance stress (WAS) protocol for 10 consecutive days and compared with the stress-exposed mice receiving oral administration of kratom leaf extract (2.5 and 5 mg/kg of mitragynine) or solifenacin (10 mg/kg). Anxiety-like behaviors were assessed using open field test. Bladder pain sensitivity was evaluated with von Frey test, while voiding behavior was analyzed using voiding pattern analysis. Bladder contractility was examined using an <i>in vitro</i> organ bath technique, and urinary bladder mast cell infiltration was assessed by toluidine blue staining. Results show that mice receiving WAS had a reduction in the total duration and number of unsupported rearing behaviors, reduced voiding area, and increased bladder pain responses; however, these effects were reversed by treatment with kratom leaf extract (2.5 and 5 mg/kg of mitragynine). Interestingly, the WAS group also exhibited markedly increased tonic contractions in response to carbachol, a muscarinic agonist; these responses were attenuated in mice treated with kratom leaf extract (2.5 and 5 mg/kg) The enhanced tonic contractile response to carbachol was abolished by pre-incubation with ondansetron (a 5-HT₃ antagonist). The WAS group showed an increased total number of mast cells in the urinary bladder, which was reduced by treatment with kratom leaf extract at both 2.5 and 5 mg/kg. Our results indicate that treatment with kratom leaf extract attenuated chronic stress-induced bladder pain responses, voiding abnormalities, and mast cell numbers, and was associated with reduced contractile response to muscarinic stimulation, suggesting a potential modulatory effect on stress-induced bladder dysfunction.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1810337"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13143891/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837132","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Role of CNTN6 in neurodevelopment and neuropathology.","authors":"Maria M Shadrina, Anna A Kashevarova, Yana A Tyumentceva, Ariuna T Ranzaeva, Igor N Lebedev, Marina Y Khodanovich","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1726979","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1726979","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Contactin 6 (CNTN6) is a recently discovered member of the contactins family, which belongs to a group of cell adhesion molecules. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the possible functions of CNTN6 in the organism and its manifestations in animal models and human diseases. Histological, cellular, and molecular studies in rodents have shown the involvement of this protein in neurite guidance, neural network development, and oligodendrocytogenesis. The expression levels in the cerebellum, hippocampus, and visual cortex of rodents vary depending on the period of neurodevelopment. Animal models with a deletion of the <i>Cntn6</i> gene have shown impaired spatial orientation and memory patterns. In humans, copy number variation (CNV) analysis and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) found allele-phenotype relationship of this gene with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), Tourette syndrome (TS), schizophrenia (SCZ), anorexia, and other mental and neurodevelopmental diseases.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1726979"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13148036/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837074","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring neural mechanisms of Mandarin tone sandhi perception via fNIRS: the role of gesture in multimodal integration.","authors":"Yezhi Cui, Fengjie Zhai, Guang Han, Zixuan Ren, Yihan Wang, Zhuanping Qin, Pengke Cui","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1680211","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1680211","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>The use of pitch gestures in teaching Mandarin tone (i.e., gesture-augmented instruction) has been reported to facilitate lexical tone acquisition. However, the neural mechanisms underlying how gestures aid the learning of complex phonological rules, such as tone sandhi, remain unclear. This study investigated whether gesture-based learning enhances tone sandhi perception primarily through multimodal integration or by promoting cognitive control.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Forty-four Vietnamese-speaking learners were randomly assigned to either a gesture training group or a no-gesture control group. Post-training, participants performed a disyllabic tone discrimination task while functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) data and behavioral responses were recorded.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Results revealed significantly greater neural responses in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L-DLPFC) in the gesture group compared to the control group. Moreover, enhanced L-DLPFC activation was positively correlated with improved behavioral discrimination accuracy. The gesture group also exhibited strengthened functional connectivity between the L-DLPFC and bilateral prefrontal cortices, accompanied by accelerated hemodynamic responses.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>Collectively, these findings suggest that gesture-assisted learning facilitates tone sandhi mastery primarily by augmenting prefrontal executive control and fostering multisensory integration. This pattern aligns with a weak embodied cognition framework, in which gestures serve as distributed scaffolds that support, rather than replace, abstract tonal representations.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1680211"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13144161/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837052","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tideglusib improves novel object recognition memory in the preclinical DBA/2J <i>mdx</i> mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.","authors":"Emily N Copeland, Amélie A T Marais, Ahmad Mohammad, Bianca M Marcella, Ryan W Baranowski, Shawn M Beaudette, Rebecca E K MacPherson, Val A Fajardo","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1812975","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1812975","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe X-linked neuromuscular disorder characterized by progressive muscle wasting. Approximately 1 in 3 DMD patients experience cognitive dysfunction, with research suggesting an Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like pathology. We have previously shown that treatment with the glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3) inhibitor, tideglusib, improves muscle quality, function, and insulin sensitivity in the DBA/2J (D2) <i>mdx</i> mouse model of DMD. In this brief follow-up study, we report the effects of tideglusib treatment on cognitive function.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Male D2 WT and <i>mdx</i> mice were purchased from Jackson Laboratories. Mice were separated into the following groups: (1) WT, (2) <i>mdx</i>-vehicle, and (3) <i>mdx</i>-tideglusib (10 mg/kg/day via oral gavage for 4 weeks). A novel object recognition test was performed to assess recognition memory. Hippocampus and serum samples were collected for BACE1 activity assays, amyloid beta (Aβ) ELISAs, and western blotting.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Compared to vehicle-treated <i>mdx</i> mice, tideglusib-treated <i>mdx</i> mice demonstrated improved recognition memory. These changes to recognition memory were accompanied by greater expression of beta-catenin, an indirect downstream marker of GSK3 inhibition. While there were no changes in BACE1 activity, tideglusib-treated <i>mdx</i> mice had higher concentrations of Aβ in the serum and lower protein levels of receptor of advanced glycation end products.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>The results from this brief follow-up study offer preliminary support for tideglusib as a treatment for both muscle and brain impairments in <i>mdx</i> mice, potentially improving cognitive function through enhanced vascular Aβ clearance.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1812975"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13144132/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837060","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chronic stress and cognitive dysfunction in myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome: HPA axis dysregulation and hippocampal plasticity.","authors":"Hailan Kang, Tianrui Shao, Yuqing Shi, Shilei Wang, Huazhong Xiong, Xuanyan Jin, Jixiang Ren","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1814098","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1814098","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cognitive dysfunction is a common and disabling clinical feature of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), often described by patients as \"brain fog.\" These symptoms typically manifest as difficulties in attention, memory, and concentration. Chronic stress has been proposed as an important contributing factor in ME/CFS. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a central role in the stress response, and prolonged adverse stress may contribute to HPA axis dysregulation, including altered cortisol rhythmicity and impaired negative feedback regulation. Such dysregulation may be associated with cognitive dysfunction in ME/CFS through mechanisms involving neuroinflammatory responses, oxidative stress, and disturbances in neurotransmitter homeostasis. Studies suggest that these alterations may affect hippocampal structure and function, thereby contributing to impaired learning and memory processes. As a key brain region involved in cognition and stress regulation, the hippocampus may be implicated in the neurobiological mechanisms underlying cognitive dysfunction in ME/CFS. This review integrates current evidence on the potential role of HPA axis dysregulation and related neurobiological alterations in chronic stress-associated cognitive dysfunction in ME/CFS, with the aim of providing a theoretical basis for identifying potential intervention targets and informing strategies centered on HPA axis regulation.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1814098"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13144083/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837126","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reduced bilateral auditory cortex activation during pure-tone perception in pediatric HIV.","authors":"Keri J Woods, Tzy-Jyun Yao, Barbara Laughton, Ernesta M Meintjes, Peter Torre, Marcin Jankiewicz","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1623144","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1623144","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Children with perinatally acquired HIV (CPHIV) are at increased risk of neurodevelopmental difficulties, including hearing-related impairments, despite early initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Previous studies have reported a higher prevalence of hearing loss in CPHIV compared with uninfected children; however, the contribution of the central auditory system to these auditory differences remains unclear. Understanding central auditory processing in CPHIV is important, as even subtle auditory difficulties during childhood can negatively affect speech and language development, academic performance, and quality of life.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Functional MRI was used to examine neural responses to auditory stimulation in 108 11-year-old children (60 CPHIV and 48 children without HIV). During scanning, participants listened to pure tones at low (500 Hz), middle (1,500 Hz), and high (4,000 Hz) frequencies.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>CPHIV demonstrated modestly elevated hearing thresholds (reflecting poorer hearing sensitivity) at several frequencies; however, the prevalence of clinically defined hearing loss did not differ between groups. Across all children, pure-tone stimulation elicited robust bilateral activation of the auditory cortices, with both the spatial extent and magnitude of activation decreasing as tone frequency increased. Relative to controls, CPHIV exhibited significantly reduced bilateral auditory cortex responses across frequencies. These group differences persisted after accounting for sex and handedness and after excluding children with hearing loss. Associations between hearing thresholds and auditory cortex activation were generally weak, except at 4,000 Hz in CPHIV, where poorer hearing was associated with stronger auditory cortex activation, consistent with a compensatory neural response.</p><p><strong>Discussion: </strong>Despite largely normal peripheral hearing, CPHIV receiving ART exhibited reduced bilateral auditory cortex responses during pure-tone processing. These findings suggest that alterations within the central auditory system may contribute to auditory vulnerability in CPHIV.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1623144"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13139200/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837101","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The role of sensory experience in the maturation of prefrontal cortical circuits.","authors":"Amanda Anqueira-González, Sarah Canetta","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1808558","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1808558","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Sensory input during early life is crucial for brain circuitry to be appropriately wired and refined. Foundational studies in the past century established that early sensory input was required for the appropriate development of primary sensory areas. Further investigation in the beginning of the 21st century extended this idea by suggesting that early sensory inputs may also impact remodeling of associative cortical regions. While many of the early studies promoting this idea were based on correlational observations, more causal studies followed soon after. It quickly became clear that sensory experience is a driver for shaping associative regions, including those that do not necessarily receive direct sensory input, such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The PFC is a region critical for sensory integration as well as for goal-directed, flexible behavior across species. Importantly, the PFC is a late developing structure, where the integration of diverse types of information, such as sensory information, during early life can elicit alterations in the underlying developing neural circuitry. These sensory inputs can interact with genetically-encoded biological programs to shape the maturation of PFC circuitry. In this review, we will highlight the studies supporting this model and delve further into how sensory experience during early life can impact different biological mechanisms to shape developing PFC circuitry.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1808558"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13139336/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837124","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rethinking perceptual distortions in amblyopia: toward a multi-feature, visual-field-wide perspective.","authors":"Haneieh Molaei, Reza Farivar","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1763302","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1763302","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Perceptual distortion is a key yet under-recognized feature of amblyopia that extends beyond visual acuity loss and impacts binocular vision. While various forms of distortion have been reported, discrepancies across studies may reflect the narrow focus on single stimuli or distortion types. We argue for a more comprehensive approach to studying distortion-through mapping and multi-feature assessment-as a potentially informative framework for future diagnostic and treatment-related applications, as well as for understanding the neural basis of amblyopia.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1763302"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13141314/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837069","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A narrative review on oxytocin at the intersection of sleep, stress, and social behavior.","authors":"Ida Luisa Boccalaro, Enrico Rillosi, Oscar D Ramirez-Plascencia, Roberto De Luca, Carrie E Mahoney","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1745281","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1745281","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Sleep, stress regulation, and circadian rhythms form an interdependent network that shapes cognition, emotion, and social behavior. Disruption of any component can amplify stress sensitivity and impair emotional regulation, leading to neurobehavioral instability. This review discusses evidence from human and animal studies to illustrate how oxytocin (OT) may function at multiple brain regions to modulate sleep regulation, stress physiology, and social interaction. We discuss mechanisms by which sleep deficiency heightens hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and stress-related behavioral reactivity and impulsivity, and how OT signaling is thought to counteract these effects by reducing HPA output and stress-induced behavioral responses. Furthermore, converging evidence from preclinical and emerging human studies suggests that OT release may contribute to non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep stability potentially via modulation of hippocampal-amygdalar circuits and thalamocortical network activity, including sleep spindle-related dynamics, thereby enhancing emotional processing and social memory. Social isolation, a potent stressor, reduces OT signaling and disrupts sleep-wake dynamics, suggesting a mechanistic link between positive social interaction and sleep maintenance. Collectively, we propose OT as a key neuromodulatory regulator at the intersection of sleep, stress resilience, and social behavior, providing new insights into the neuroendocrine pathways that underlie adaptive emotional regulation and identifying potential therapeutic targets for stress-related sleep disturbances.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1745281"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13139196/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Short-term intrinsic connectivity changes induced by cognitive exertion in healthy participants.","authors":"Leighton Barnden, James Baraniuk, Maira Inderyas, Sonya Marshall-Gradisnik, Kiran Thapaliya","doi":"10.3389/fnins.2026.1781534","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2026.1781534","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Changes in brain intrinsic connectivity on the timescale of minutes, as provoked by a cognitive task, have not been well documented.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A total of two 7.5-min 7 Tesla functional MRI (fMRI) scans (Run 1 and Run 2), separated by 90 s, were acquired for 23 healthy participants during cognitive exertion induced by the Stroop color-word interference task. Independent component analysis (ICA) of the paired Run 1 and Run 2 fMRI acquisitions identified components with distinct spatial and temporal signatures.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The spatial extent of the ICA components coincided with hubs of the brain's intrinsic networks. In addition, these components correlated with brain regions from other networks, thereby defining inter-network connectivity. Run 1 and Run 2 showed significantly different patterns of connections (p-FWE < 0.01) across 10 ICA-identified intrinsic networks and 20 inter-networks. Connectivity in Run 2 was higher in 12 nodes and lower in eight nodes, indicating dynamic changes during the task response. Overall, the right angular gyrus/supramarginal gyrus and the right frontal pole regions of the ventral attention network showed greater activity in Run 1, but activity shifted to the fusiform gyrus, supplementary motor area (SMA), and precentral and postcentral gyrus nodes in Run 2. Response times (RTs) and Stroop test accuracy did not change between runs in these healthy participants.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Inter-network connectivity indicated that surveillance and task oversight nodes were required early in learning how to complete the Stroop task (Run 1), but these were replaced by object recognition and more automatic responses in Run 2. These findings define inter-networks that are sensitive to cognitive exertion and provide a framework for understanding cognitive dysfunction.</p>","PeriodicalId":12639,"journal":{"name":"Frontiers in Neuroscience","volume":"20 ","pages":"1781534"},"PeriodicalIF":3.2,"publicationDate":"2026-04-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13136138/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147837109","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}