Fire and Materials最新文献

{"title":"Quantification of Pore Size and Shape Distributions in Intumescent Coating Chars Using Image Processing and Pore-Identification Algorithms: Effects of Heating Rate","authors":"Ander Labaien Etxeberria,&nbsp;Jochen A. H. Dreyer,&nbsp;James Robson,&nbsp;Søren Kiil","doi":"10.1002/fam.3297","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3297","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study investigates the effect of heating rate on intumescent coating char formation with regard to pore morphology. The morphology was extracted from cross-sectional images of char samples embedded in an epoxy resin, followed by image processing and a pore-identification algorithm. We highlight the necessity of establishing a clear definition of what constitutes a pore unit, especially when delineating the boundaries of interconnected pores. Depending on the employed pore-identification algorithm, the calculated average pore size and shape vary substantially. A refined approach was developed to identify and measure the morphology of these materials. Adopting this methodology facilitated a meaningful mapping of the pore dimensions in intumescent chars while also capturing small details. Elliptical pore regions were identified realistically, avoiding their oversegmentation into excessively small subpores. Results show stratified and heterogeneous structures with the largest pores predominantly in layers close to the heat source (top layer). Decreasing the heating rate led to larger pore sizes in the top char layer, whereas the smaller pores close to the steel substrate further decreased in size. Additionally, a pore shape analysis revealed a predominantly elliptical morphology, underscoring the practicality of our approach for accurately assessing pore characteristics in intumescent coatings. Overall, this study proposes a cost-effective and reliable method for pore morphology analysis, offering deep insights into intumescent coating char behavior.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"487-506"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.3297","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143908940","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Discrimination of Slight Thermal Damage to Fibers for Arson Investigation","authors":"Peibin Wang,&nbsp;Zhengzhe Zang,&nbsp;Jing Jin,&nbsp;Yuhang Jiang,&nbsp;Zixin Li,&nbsp;Jinzhuan Zhang","doi":"10.1002/fam.3296","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3296","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This study explores the forensic potential of thermal damage traces on clothing fibers to identify arsonist. Seven common fiber materials, including cotton, linen, wool, silk, PET, nylon, and/or their blended fabrics, were picked and their thermal properties were analyzed first. A cone calorimeter, the internationally recognized standard heat resource, was applied to simulate transient high-temperature conditions similar to those in arson cases. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that silk (270°C), wool (280°C) and cotton (280°C) entered the thermal decomposition stage first, followed by cotton–linen blends (320°C), with the synthetic fibers PET and nylon decomposed from 370°C and 400°C, respectively. Up to 450°C, all fabrics have experienced a mass loss over 50%. Macroscopic and microscopic observations (scanning electron microscopy (SEM)) showed that distinct thermal damage characteristics formed on each kind of fabrics after heating. Cotton fabric began to discolor at around 280°C, with cotton fiber presenting rupture traces due to thermal decomposition observed at 320°C. Similarly, cotton–linen fabric exhibited discoloration at around 320°C, with fiber ruptured due to thermal decomposition at 340°C. Silk fabric began to discolor at around 225°C, with carbonization traces detected by both macroscopically and SEM after heating at 310°C. Wool fabric showed discoloration and shrinkage at about 320°C, with fiber curling, cracking, wrinkling, and expansion observed microscopically. Polyester and polyester–cotton fabrics exhibited wrinkling and shrinkage at around 175°C, with fiber melting at 225°C distinguished microscopically. Nylon fabric showed wrinkling and shrinkage at around 225°C, with fiber melting observed via SEM. This analysis on thermal damage traces offers crucial forensic evidence to determine suspects' proximity to fire, aiding in arson investigations.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"477-486"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909129","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Performance of Bond Lines of Engineered Wood in Cone Heater Testing","authors":"Jane Liise Vihmann,&nbsp;Alar Just,&nbsp;Magdalena Sterley,&nbsp;Katrin Nele Mäger,&nbsp;Jaan Kers","doi":"10.1002/fam.3295","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3295","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Engineered wood structures are widely used in modern buildings, for example, glued laminated timber, cross-laminated timber, finger-jointed solid wood, laminated veneer lumber, and so forth. These products often contain bond lines between the lamellae and/or within the lamellae. The most common types of bond lines are face bonding, finger joints, and edge bonding. The type of bond line can impact the behaviour of engineered wood in fire. At ambient temperatures, the bond line integrity is usually maintained; however, at elevated temperatures or in fire, the bond lines can lose their integrity. The new Eurocode 5 for fire design of timber structures will contain different design scenarios and parameters depending on the behaviour of adhesives at elevated temperatures. This paper aims to support the development of the new Eurocode 5. The bond line integrity was tested with 10 adhesives using two cone heater test methods and furnace tests with glulam. All specimens were made with softwood. Loaded finger-jointed specimens and unloaded face-bonded specimens were tested under the cone heater. Unloaded glued laminated timber specimens were tested in a model-scale furnace. The results are analysed and compared. Generally, a good correlation between the different types of tests was seen. The same adhesives tested in various experiments showed similar performance levels. Adhesive families may have different performances depending on various factors. To assess the adhesives and choose the appropriate calculation method, test methods for assessing the adhesives with cone heater are analysed, compared to fire test results, and proposed in this paper.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"455-476"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909679","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Compressive Performance and Damage Analysis of Coral Seawater Sea Sand Concrete After High Temperature","authors":"Jing Liu,&nbsp;Qiang Hu,&nbsp;Yuliang Chen,&nbsp;Xin Liang","doi":"10.1002/fam.3294","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3294","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Although concrete is non-combustible, it experiences a decline in mechanical properties when exposed to high temperatures. This study investigates the impact of varying temperatures (<i>T</i>) and constant exposure durations (<i>H</i>) on the mechanical performance degradation of coral aggregate concrete. Coral seawater sea sand concrete (CSSC) was produced using equal proportions of coral aggregates, seawater, sea sand, and P•O 42.5 cement. The compressive failure characteristics of CSSC were analyzed under different <i>T</i> and <i>H</i> conditions. To characterize the mechanical properties, compressive tests were conducted on 30 sets of 150 × 150 × 150 mm cubic specimens. The resulting stress–strain curves were used to determine the influence of <i>T</i> and <i>H</i>. The results indicate that the compressive strength (<i>f</i>\u0000 _cu\u0000 ^{\u0000 <i>T</i>\u0000}) and elastic modulus (<i>E</i>\u0000 ₀) of CSSC decrease with increasing temperature. At <i>T</i> = 800°C, the <i>f</i>\u0000 _cu\u0000 ^{\u0000 <i>T</i>\u0000} of CSSC is reduced to 27.8% of its original value at 25°C, while the <i>E</i>\u0000 ₀ decreases to 9.7%. Additionally, the mass loss rate (<i>I</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>w</i>\u0000}) and volume expansion rate (<i>R</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>s</i>\u0000}) increase with rising temperature. At <i>T</i> = 800°C, the <i>I</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>w</i>\u0000} reaches 12%, and the <i>R</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>s</i>\u0000} reaches 7.1%. Finally, the stress–strain constitutive model of concrete after high temperature was fitted to the experimental data.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"442-454"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909485","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Understanding Wildfires in Norway: Key Hazards and Vegetation Fires Damaging Buildings 2016–2023","authors":"Ragni Fjellgaard Mikalsen,&nbsp;Edvard Aamodt,&nbsp;Max Gribble,&nbsp;Ellen Synnøve Skilbred,&nbsp;Dag Olav Snersrud,&nbsp;Kemal Sarp Arsava","doi":"10.1002/fam.3292","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3292","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Wildland–urban interface (WUI) fires are an increasing global challenge, and local knowledge is essential for efficient mitigation. In Norway, as for the rest of Northern Europe, wildfires are expected to increase in frequency and severity, which will also increase WUI vulnerabilities. This study analyzes all registered vegetation fires damaging buildings in Norway from January 2016 to April 2023 (74 fires damaging 102 structures), with a case-by-case review of 18 fires impacting two or more structures. We have identified that spring season fires and direct flame contact are the primary contributors to vegetation fires that damage buildings in Norway. We also provide insights from three wildfire exercises with prescribed burns and a post-fire evaluation, providing fire dynamics data on fires in low vegetation while identifying a need to focus on hazards related to juniper vegetation and unmanaged cultural landscapes. This new knowledge is vital for developing effective and targeted prevention measures for Norwegian communities in WUI areas.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 5","pages":"536-549"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.3292","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144751220","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Kind of Rare Earth Oxide Composited Superfine Dry Powder Extinguishant With Improved Fire Extinguishing Performance","authors":"Mengjie Zhang,&nbsp;Xiutao Li,&nbsp;Zhenyang Zhou,&nbsp;Feng Zhang,&nbsp;Xiaomeng Zhou","doi":"10.1002/fam.3293","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3293","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"431-441"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909457","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental Investigation of Standardized Conditioning and Representative Accelerated Drying Protocols Impact on Concrete Spalling","authors":"Takwa Sayari,&nbsp;Siyimane Mohaine,&nbsp;Tulio Honorio,&nbsp;Fabienne Robert,&nbsp;Farid Benboudjema,&nbsp;François Cussigh,&nbsp;Sandrine Chanut,&nbsp;Laetitia D'Aloia,&nbsp;Sébastien Bouteille,&nbsp;Philippe Gotteland","doi":"10.1002/fam.3291","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3291","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Concrete spalling is a thermo-mechanical instability induced by fire exposure that needs to be investigated when the fire behavior of specific structures is to be assessed. In Europe, experimental fire behavior is commonly assessed by reference to EN 1363-1 “Fire resistance tests – Part 1: General requirements.” According to this standard, conditioning at 23°C, 50% RH for at least 3 months should be applied for concrete elements but it is also specified that at the time of the test the strength and the moisture content of the test specimen shall approximate to those expected in normal service and the test specimen shall preferably not be tested until it has reached an equilibrium moisture content resulting from storage in an ambient atmosphere of 50% relative humidity at 23°C. In this context, the main objective of this work is to study the impact of drying duration and conditions on (i) the spalling profiles of different concrete and (ii) the associated moisture profiles. An accelerated drying protocol is proposed based on an extensive experimental campaign and a numerical drying kinetics study on two high-performance concretes, and two ordinary concretes. The accelerated drying protocol aims (i) to propose a protocol allowing to reproduce of the hydric state of concrete structures in service condition (2 years) while ensuring the reproducibility of the spalling facies and secondarily (ii) to explore the possibility to reduce the conditioning time usually used in standard conditions (3 months) while maintaining acceptable representativity. The fire behavior of mechanically loaded and non-loaded slabs was evaluated at various times and conditioning modes. The important influence of the moisture gradient and the moisture content on spalling are highlighted. A good representativity of the proposed accelerated drying protocol is also observed.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"417-430"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation on Shear Strength of Fiber Reinforced GPC Exposed to Elevated Temperatures","authors":"B. Vijaya Prasad,&nbsp;K. Balamurali,&nbsp;N. Anand,&nbsp;P. D. Arumairaj,&nbsp;Ajwin Jose Francis,&nbsp;S. Samuel Aaron,&nbsp;M. Z. Naser","doi":"10.1002/fam.3290","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3290","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a novel and sustainable building material that tends to be more brittle than that of conventional concrete (CC). As such, exposure to fire makes the GPC even more brittle. Fortunately, this brittleness can be reduced by adding fibers, which improves its homogeneity and shear strength in the interfacial region. The present work investigates the influence of high temperatures on the interfacial shear strength of fiber-reinforced GPC (FGPC) and hybrid GPC (HGPC) using shear (push-off) samples exposed to the ISO 834 fire curve. The GPC is developed using two alkaline binders at a 10 M NaOH concentration. A total of six types of mix proportions were used: normal GPC mix without fibers, FGPC mix with basalt fiber (BF), crimped steel fiber (SF) and polypropylene fiber (PF), and HGPC mixes with a combination of SF and BF and with a combination of SF and PF. After 30 and 60 min of heating, the highest residual compressive strength (CS) and residual shear strength (SS) are observed for specimens with BF, and lower residual CS and SS are observed for GPC-PF and GPC mixes. After 90 and 120 min of heating, the BF and SF + BF exhibited almost similar residual CS and residual SS, whereas the PF had the least residual compressive and residual shear strengths.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"400-416"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Flammability Evaluation of Native Brazilian Amazon Rainforest Leaves","authors":"Bruno Polycarpo Palmerim Dias,&nbsp;Simone Pereira da Silva Ribeiro,&nbsp;Alexandre Landesmann","doi":"10.1002/fam.3289","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3289","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The Brazilian Amazon Rainforest is home to a vast number of fauna and flora species and plays a crucial role in mitigating the effects of global climate change. Despite its importance, the biome has been severely impacted by wildfires for years. Fuels are the most critical element in wildfire management, and leaves are the combustible particles present in all potential layers of fire spread. This paper presents the flammability evaluation of oven-dried live leaves from 24 native tree species of the Brazilian Amazon Ombrophilous Dense Forest, using the mass-loss cone calorimeter (MLCC) at 50 kW/m². Additionally, through hierarchical clustering analysis, species were grouped into five flammability clusters. The interquartile range (IQR) of the cone calorimeter parameters—PHRR, THR, and TPHRR—was the difference between 67.90 and 61.03 kW/m²; 5.93 and 5.50 MJ/m²; and 33.67 and 29.58 s, respectively, showing a smaller variation than that reported in live leaf cone calorimeter test literature (both dry and fresh). A clear distinction was also observed between palms and other species with compound leaves. While palms—<i>Leopoldinia piassaba</i>, <i>Oenocarpus bacaba</i>, and <i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>—were classified into the flammable, highly flammable, and Extremely Flammable groups, respectively, other species with compound leaves were grouped into the low flammable (<i>Pentaclethra macroloba</i>) and very low flammable groups (<i>Anadenanthera colubrina</i> and <i>Parkia pendula</i>). Finally, the results have the potential to improve predictions of Brazilian Amazon wildfire behavior and inform the selection of less flammable species for green belts or reforestation projects.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 5","pages":"657-669"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144751386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Residential Exterior Wall Reaction to Post-Flashover Compartment Fires","authors":"Daniel J. Gorham,&nbsp;Joseph M. Willi,&nbsp;Gavin P. Horn","doi":"10.1002/fam.3278","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3278","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Large outdoor fires involving building-to-building fire spread are catastrophic, often resulting in significant loss of life and property. Previous research investigating ignition of buildings from exterior fires has focused on exposures from wildland fuels, which typically have shorter residence times compared to structure fires. This paper presents the details of full-scale building-to-building fire spread experiments conducted on residential exterior wall assemblies. Three wall assemblies sided with exterior plywood panels (hereafter referred to as T1–11), exterior insulation finishing system (EIFS), and fiber cement board were exposed to a post-flashover compartment fire at 1.8, 3.0, and 4.3 m separation distances to evaluate reaction-to-fire characteristics. All three wall assemblies tested ignited from the source exposure within this range of separation distances, which are common in residential areas with high structure density. Combustible siding (T1–11 and EIFS) ignited at the 3.0 and 4.3 m separation distances, whereas sheathing behind the noncombustible siding (fiber cement) wall assembly ignited at the 1.8 m separation distance. Compared to results from experiments with an identical protocol that examined the performance of double-pane window assemblies, the maximum heat load (time-integrated heat flux) at the time of ignition at the 3.0 m separation distance was consistently higher than the heat load at the time of cracking of the outer pane of plain (annealed) glass window assemblies but lower than that for cracking of both panes of a double-pane window assembly. Current codes, standards, and test methods should address fire penetration, as well as vertical and lateral flame propagation of exterior wall assemblies.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 5","pages":"708-727"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.3278","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144751550","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}