Fire and Materials最新文献

{"title":"Quantification of Pore Size and Shape Distributions in Intumescent Coating Chars Using Image Processing and Pore-Identification Algorithms: Effects of Heating Rate","authors":"Ander Labaien Etxeberria,&nbsp;Jochen A. H. Dreyer,&nbsp;James Robson,&nbsp;Søren Kiil","doi":"10.1002/fam.3297","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3297","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study investigates the effect of heating rate on intumescent coating char formation with regard to pore morphology. The morphology was extracted from cross-sectional images of char samples embedded in an epoxy resin, followed by image processing and a pore-identification algorithm. We highlight the necessity of establishing a clear definition of what constitutes a pore unit, especially when delineating the boundaries of interconnected pores. Depending on the employed pore-identification algorithm, the calculated average pore size and shape vary substantially. A refined approach was developed to identify and measure the morphology of these materials. Adopting this methodology facilitated a meaningful mapping of the pore dimensions in intumescent chars while also capturing small details. Elliptical pore regions were identified realistically, avoiding their oversegmentation into excessively small subpores. Results show stratified and heterogeneous structures with the largest pores predominantly in layers close to the heat source (top layer). Decreasing the heating rate led to larger pore sizes in the top char layer, whereas the smaller pores close to the steel substrate further decreased in size. Additionally, a pore shape analysis revealed a predominantly elliptical morphology, underscoring the practicality of our approach for accurately assessing pore characteristics in intumescent coatings. Overall, this study proposes a cost-effective and reliable method for pore morphology analysis, offering deep insights into intumescent coating char behavior.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"487-506"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.3297","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143908940","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Discrimination of Slight Thermal Damage to Fibers for Arson Investigation","authors":"Peibin Wang,&nbsp;Zhengzhe Zang,&nbsp;Jing Jin,&nbsp;Yuhang Jiang,&nbsp;Zixin Li,&nbsp;Jinzhuan Zhang","doi":"10.1002/fam.3296","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3296","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This study explores the forensic potential of thermal damage traces on clothing fibers to identify arsonist. Seven common fiber materials, including cotton, linen, wool, silk, PET, nylon, and/or their blended fabrics, were picked and their thermal properties were analyzed first. A cone calorimeter, the internationally recognized standard heat resource, was applied to simulate transient high-temperature conditions similar to those in arson cases. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that silk (270°C), wool (280°C) and cotton (280°C) entered the thermal decomposition stage first, followed by cotton–linen blends (320°C), with the synthetic fibers PET and nylon decomposed from 370°C and 400°C, respectively. Up to 450°C, all fabrics have experienced a mass loss over 50%. Macroscopic and microscopic observations (scanning electron microscopy (SEM)) showed that distinct thermal damage characteristics formed on each kind of fabrics after heating. Cotton fabric began to discolor at around 280°C, with cotton fiber presenting rupture traces due to thermal decomposition observed at 320°C. Similarly, cotton–linen fabric exhibited discoloration at around 320°C, with fiber ruptured due to thermal decomposition at 340°C. Silk fabric began to discolor at around 225°C, with carbonization traces detected by both macroscopically and SEM after heating at 310°C. Wool fabric showed discoloration and shrinkage at about 320°C, with fiber curling, cracking, wrinkling, and expansion observed microscopically. Polyester and polyester–cotton fabrics exhibited wrinkling and shrinkage at around 175°C, with fiber melting at 225°C distinguished microscopically. Nylon fabric showed wrinkling and shrinkage at around 225°C, with fiber melting observed via SEM. This analysis on thermal damage traces offers crucial forensic evidence to determine suspects' proximity to fire, aiding in arson investigations.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"477-486"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909129","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Performance of Bond Lines of Engineered Wood in Cone Heater Testing","authors":"Jane Liise Vihmann,&nbsp;Alar Just,&nbsp;Magdalena Sterley,&nbsp;Katrin Nele Mäger,&nbsp;Jaan Kers","doi":"10.1002/fam.3295","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3295","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Engineered wood structures are widely used in modern buildings, for example, glued laminated timber, cross-laminated timber, finger-jointed solid wood, laminated veneer lumber, and so forth. These products often contain bond lines between the lamellae and/or within the lamellae. The most common types of bond lines are face bonding, finger joints, and edge bonding. The type of bond line can impact the behaviour of engineered wood in fire. At ambient temperatures, the bond line integrity is usually maintained; however, at elevated temperatures or in fire, the bond lines can lose their integrity. The new Eurocode 5 for fire design of timber structures will contain different design scenarios and parameters depending on the behaviour of adhesives at elevated temperatures. This paper aims to support the development of the new Eurocode 5. The bond line integrity was tested with 10 adhesives using two cone heater test methods and furnace tests with glulam. All specimens were made with softwood. Loaded finger-jointed specimens and unloaded face-bonded specimens were tested under the cone heater. Unloaded glued laminated timber specimens were tested in a model-scale furnace. The results are analysed and compared. Generally, a good correlation between the different types of tests was seen. The same adhesives tested in various experiments showed similar performance levels. Adhesive families may have different performances depending on various factors. To assess the adhesives and choose the appropriate calculation method, test methods for assessing the adhesives with cone heater are analysed, compared to fire test results, and proposed in this paper.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"455-476"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909679","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Compressive Performance and Damage Analysis of Coral Seawater Sea Sand Concrete After High Temperature","authors":"Jing Liu,&nbsp;Qiang Hu,&nbsp;Yuliang Chen,&nbsp;Xin Liang","doi":"10.1002/fam.3294","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3294","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Although concrete is non-combustible, it experiences a decline in mechanical properties when exposed to high temperatures. This study investigates the impact of varying temperatures (<i>T</i>) and constant exposure durations (<i>H</i>) on the mechanical performance degradation of coral aggregate concrete. Coral seawater sea sand concrete (CSSC) was produced using equal proportions of coral aggregates, seawater, sea sand, and P•O 42.5 cement. The compressive failure characteristics of CSSC were analyzed under different <i>T</i> and <i>H</i> conditions. To characterize the mechanical properties, compressive tests were conducted on 30 sets of 150 × 150 × 150 mm cubic specimens. The resulting stress–strain curves were used to determine the influence of <i>T</i> and <i>H</i>. The results indicate that the compressive strength (<i>f</i>\u0000 _cu\u0000 ^{\u0000 <i>T</i>\u0000}) and elastic modulus (<i>E</i>\u0000 ₀) of CSSC decrease with increasing temperature. At <i>T</i> = 800°C, the <i>f</i>\u0000 _cu\u0000 ^{\u0000 <i>T</i>\u0000} of CSSC is reduced to 27.8% of its original value at 25°C, while the <i>E</i>\u0000 ₀ decreases to 9.7%. Additionally, the mass loss rate (<i>I</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>w</i>\u0000}) and volume expansion rate (<i>R</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>s</i>\u0000}) increase with rising temperature. At <i>T</i> = 800°C, the <i>I</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>w</i>\u0000} reaches 12%, and the <i>R</i>\u0000 _{\u0000 <i>s</i>\u0000} reaches 7.1%. Finally, the stress–strain constitutive model of concrete after high temperature was fitted to the experimental data.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"442-454"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909485","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Kind of Rare Earth Oxide Composited Superfine Dry Powder Extinguishant With Improved Fire Extinguishing Performance","authors":"Mengjie Zhang,&nbsp;Xiutao Li,&nbsp;Zhenyang Zhou,&nbsp;Feng Zhang,&nbsp;Xiaomeng Zhou","doi":"10.1002/fam.3293","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3293","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"431-441"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909457","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental Investigation of Standardized Conditioning and Representative Accelerated Drying Protocols Impact on Concrete Spalling","authors":"Takwa Sayari,&nbsp;Siyimane Mohaine,&nbsp;Tulio Honorio,&nbsp;Fabienne Robert,&nbsp;Farid Benboudjema,&nbsp;François Cussigh,&nbsp;Sandrine Chanut,&nbsp;Laetitia D'Aloia,&nbsp;Sébastien Bouteille,&nbsp;Philippe Gotteland","doi":"10.1002/fam.3291","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3291","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Concrete spalling is a thermo-mechanical instability induced by fire exposure that needs to be investigated when the fire behavior of specific structures is to be assessed. In Europe, experimental fire behavior is commonly assessed by reference to EN 1363-1 “Fire resistance tests – Part 1: General requirements.” According to this standard, conditioning at 23°C, 50% RH for at least 3 months should be applied for concrete elements but it is also specified that at the time of the test the strength and the moisture content of the test specimen shall approximate to those expected in normal service and the test specimen shall preferably not be tested until it has reached an equilibrium moisture content resulting from storage in an ambient atmosphere of 50% relative humidity at 23°C. In this context, the main objective of this work is to study the impact of drying duration and conditions on (i) the spalling profiles of different concrete and (ii) the associated moisture profiles. An accelerated drying protocol is proposed based on an extensive experimental campaign and a numerical drying kinetics study on two high-performance concretes, and two ordinary concretes. The accelerated drying protocol aims (i) to propose a protocol allowing to reproduce of the hydric state of concrete structures in service condition (2 years) while ensuring the reproducibility of the spalling facies and secondarily (ii) to explore the possibility to reduce the conditioning time usually used in standard conditions (3 months) while maintaining acceptable representativity. The fire behavior of mechanically loaded and non-loaded slabs was evaluated at various times and conditioning modes. The important influence of the moisture gradient and the moisture content on spalling are highlighted. A good representativity of the proposed accelerated drying protocol is also observed.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"417-430"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation on Shear Strength of Fiber Reinforced GPC Exposed to Elevated Temperatures","authors":"B. Vijaya Prasad,&nbsp;K. Balamurali,&nbsp;N. Anand,&nbsp;P. D. Arumairaj,&nbsp;Ajwin Jose Francis,&nbsp;S. Samuel Aaron,&nbsp;M. Z. Naser","doi":"10.1002/fam.3290","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3290","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a novel and sustainable building material that tends to be more brittle than that of conventional concrete (CC). As such, exposure to fire makes the GPC even more brittle. Fortunately, this brittleness can be reduced by adding fibers, which improves its homogeneity and shear strength in the interfacial region. The present work investigates the influence of high temperatures on the interfacial shear strength of fiber-reinforced GPC (FGPC) and hybrid GPC (HGPC) using shear (push-off) samples exposed to the ISO 834 fire curve. The GPC is developed using two alkaline binders at a 10 M NaOH concentration. A total of six types of mix proportions were used: normal GPC mix without fibers, FGPC mix with basalt fiber (BF), crimped steel fiber (SF) and polypropylene fiber (PF), and HGPC mixes with a combination of SF and BF and with a combination of SF and PF. After 30 and 60 min of heating, the highest residual compressive strength (CS) and residual shear strength (SS) are observed for specimens with BF, and lower residual CS and SS are observed for GPC-PF and GPC mixes. After 90 and 120 min of heating, the BF and SF + BF exhibited almost similar residual CS and residual SS, whereas the PF had the least residual compressive and residual shear strengths.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"400-416"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909406","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis of the Thermal Decomposition and Flammability of Polyurethane Materials Used in Building Insulation and in the Automotive Industry","authors":"Kamila Mizera,&nbsp;Kamila Sałasińska,&nbsp;Monika Borucka,&nbsp;Jan Przybysz,&nbsp;Agnieszka Gajek","doi":"10.1002/fam.3285","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3285","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The development of technology and newer requirements for materials leads to an increase in their production and storage. In the past, serious fires have occurred in public buildings, residential buildings, industrial halls, and warehouses where plastics were used or produced, resulting in disastrous consequences for the environment and human health. For this reason, it is important to examine the risks to people and the environment that arise during a fire in places where these materials are located and stored. Polyurethane foams (PUF) used in building insulation and the automotive industry have been analyzed to determine their flammability and smoke emission during combustion. The thermal stability of PUFs was assessed using simultaneous thermal analysis (STA). Released gases were identified using STA combined with FT-IR (STA/FT-IR). Fire resistance and smoke emission during combustion were evaluated using cone calorimetry and a smoke chamber. Differences in thermal decomposition and combustion characteristics, including smoke release, were observed. The combustion of semi-rigid foam was accompanied by the lowest total smoke release and the lowest total heat release. However, the combustion of flexible foam was characterized by the highest amount of smoke and a high rate of heat release, despite only a 5% weight loss at the highest temperature. In the case of rigid foam, a large residue in the form of a carbonized layer was observed.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"359-370"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909467","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical Investigations of a Large Fire Exposure Crib Test—Presenting Different Pyrolysis Modelling Methodologies and Numerical Results","authors":"Ranjith Nandish,&nbsp;Christian Knaust,&nbsp;Jochen Zehfuß","doi":"10.1002/fam.3287","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3287","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The need for numerical-based approaches to investigate the fire behaviour in buildings with combustible components is growing due to the increasing use of timber by the construction industry to meet the ‘Climate Action Plan 2050’. This requires consideration of the complex kinetic processes that take place during the burning of the wood in the numerical models. This is accomplished by using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to numerically model the material pyrolysis and combustion processes. This article presents three different approaches for simulating the behaviour of a wood crib fire using the fire dynamics simulator (FDS). These approaches are based on either prescribing the burning rate of the wood directly from the physical experiments or using the kinetic parameters to govern the underlying processes, such as pyrolysis. Wooden crib fire experiments carried out by the RISE Research Institute in Sweden inside the combustion chamber that were used to validate all the methods. The numerical results from the method, that utilised the experimentally determined burning rate, were in good agreement with the experimental results, with a maximum deviation of 6% in the case of HRR. On the other hand, the model that needs kinetic parameters as its input has shown maximum discrepancies of 12% and 33% compared to experimental results. These methods are sensitive to the input parameters and the extent of dependency needs further investigation.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"371-387"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.3287","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909561","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Characterizing the Heat Transfer Performance of Contaminated Flame-Resistant Fabrics","authors":"Shariful Islam Tushar,&nbsp;Sumit Mandal,&nbsp;Ishmam Zahin Chowdhury,&nbsp;Adriana Petrova,&nbsp;Lynn M. Boorady,&nbsp;Robert J. Agnew,&nbsp;Michael Kubicki,&nbsp;Haejun Park,&nbsp;Preston Larson","doi":"10.1002/fam.3288","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.3288","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>For the safety of workers in the oil and gas field, flame-resistant clothing is recommended to reduce the risks of skin burns and fatalities resulting from heat and fire hazards. However, flame-resistant fabrics (FRFs) contaminated with flammable substances can compromise their flammability and heat transfer properties. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the heat transfer performance (HTP) of the contaminated FRFs to improve workers' safety from burn injuries by understanding how contamination affects fabric thermal protection. The HTP in terms of second-degree burn time was evaluated and characterized by exposing the fabrics to 84 kW/m² mixed convective and radiant heat flux. The peak temperature and average heat release rate of the FRFs were also evaluated. Two levels of contamination, consisting of drilling mud and crude oil, were added to three FRFs: Meta-aramid/cotton, meta-aramid/para-aramid, and para-aramid/polybenzimidazole. The HTP of drilling mud-contaminated fabrics increased, while the HTP of crude oil-contaminated fabrics varied by fabric type and contamination level. This may be attributed to drilling mud's higher specific heat capacity and lower flammability than crude oil. Among the fabrics tested, meta-aramid/cotton fabric showed the best HTP with higher second-degree burn times of 9.63 s with drilling mud and 9.07 s with crude oil. The relationship among contamination level, fabric properties, and HTP was developed using a multiple linear regression statistical model. The fabric's properties, such as fabric weight and air permeability, significantly contributed to the HTP of the contaminated fabrics.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"49 4","pages":"388-399"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143909550","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}