Fire and Materials最新文献

{"title":"Effects of Air Gaps on Heat Transfer and Energy Distribution in Protective Fabrics for Firefighting","authors":"Shuyang Zhang,&nbsp;Miao Tian,&nbsp;Jun Li","doi":"10.1002/fam.70046","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70046","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This research investigates the influence of air gap (AG) thickness and boundary conditions on the thermal storage and release characteristics of firefighter turnout gear. The study focuses on how AGs modify heat transfer mechanisms and affect energy distribution within fabric systems. By simulating a low-radiation environment, the effects of varying AG thicknesses on stored energy, heat absorption, and cooling rates of fabric layers are systematically analyzed. The findings suggest that a closed AG with a thickness of 6.4 mm enables the fabric system to store 24% more energy at its center in comparison to fabric systems devoid of an AG, with the total stored energy reaching 138.5 kJ/m². Furthermore, AGs exceeding 6.4 mm have been shown to significantly enhance lateral energy transfer, thereby improving energy uniformity across layers. Additionally, an increase in AG thickness from 6.4 to 12 mm has been observed to slow the cooling rate at the thermal liner (TL) surface by 18.7%. In open AG conditions, convective effects dominate, enhancing heat dissipation and storing energy more evenly. Furthermore, a transition from a closed to an open AG (≥ 6.4 mm) results in a 14.2% decrease in energy retention and a reduction in temperature gradients (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.01). These findings offer critical insights into the optimization of the thermal protective performance of firefighter turnout gear, emphasizing the importance of AG thickness and boundary conditions in thermal regulation strategies.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"308-317"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618145","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimizing Alumina Trihydrate in GFRP Unsaturated Polyester Composites: Flame Retardancy and Mechanical Performance","authors":"Priscila Tavares Teles Araujo,&nbsp;Simone Pereira da Silva Ribeiro,&nbsp;Alexandre Landesmann","doi":"10.1002/fam.70043","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70043","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This work investigates the impact of incorporating alumina trihydrate (ATH) on the mechanical properties of glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites, while improving their flame-retardant performance. The use of ATH has been a promising strategy to increase the flame-retardant properties of GFRP, which are widely used in civil construction. However, high concentrations of ATH, as those used for reaching better flame-retardant performance, can impair the mechanical properties. Therefore, through a series of comprehensive experiments and analyses, the research aims to shed light on the relationship between mechanical reinforcement and flame retardancy, thereby paving the way for advanced composite materials with superior mechanical strength and enhanced flame retardancy. To achieve this objective, different concentrations of ATH (40, 50, and 60 <i>phr</i>) were evaluated within the isophthalic polyester matrix in pultruded GFRP. Flammability testing was carried out using the limiting oxygen index, Mass Loss Calorimeter Cone (MLCC), and UL-94 test. Mechanical evaluations included tensile and flexural tests to measure the material's strength. Additionally, SEM (scanning electron microscopy) analysis was utilised to examine the material's morphology and identify its constituent elements, allowing for a detailed observation of the distribution and interaction of ATH within the composite matrix. Ultimately, the research concluded that the addition of 50 <i>phr</i> of ATH resulted in a significant increase in mechanical strength, including tensile and flexural strength and modulus of elasticity. These findings indicate that incorporating ATH not only enhances the flame retardancy of GFRPs but also strengthens their mechanical properties, achieving an optimal balance between fire safety and structural performance.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"279-294"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618117","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Retrospective Study of the Impact of the 2021 Forest Fires on Land Areas in Algeria: The Case of Khenchela Forests","authors":"Kenza Garah,&nbsp;Nadia Khater,&nbsp;Toufik Aliat,&nbsp;Dmitry E. Kucher,&nbsp;Nazih Y. Rebouh,&nbsp;Mohamed S. Shokr,&nbsp;Ibraheem A. H. Yousif","doi":"10.1002/fam.70038","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70038","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>In the summer of 2021, Algeria faced severe heat waves that led to extensive forest fires, particularly impacting the wilaya of Khenchela. Although forest fires occurred throughout the entire summer, the most intense and destructive events were recorded in July 2021, causing extensive ecological damage. This study focuses on mapping and assessing the damage caused by the summer 2021 forest fires in Khenchela, using Landsat satellite data and the Differential Normalized Burn Ratio. The analysis identified that the Ouled Yakoub and Beni Oudjana forests, located in the communes of Tamza and Chelia, were the most affected. The total burned area in Khenchela exceeded 9800 ha, with Ouled Yakoub losing over 6400 ha and Beni Oudjana more than 3000 ha, together accounting for approximately 97% of the total burned area. The 2021 fire was the most destructive event in the region from 2011 to 2021. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) mapping before and after the fire revealed an almost total absence of vegetation within the burned areas, reflecting the severe impact of the fire on vegetation cover. In contrast, non-affected areas showed a slight increase in NDVI, likely due to seasonal vegetation recovery during the early autumn period. According to the detailed analysis of climatic parameters, 2021 was identified as the hottest and driest year in the past 11 years, with a significant rainfall deficit of −35.02%, and notable increases in average, maximum, and minimum temperatures by +1.25°C, +1.50°C, and +0.55°C respectively. Importantly, the study suggests that these extreme climatic conditions contributed to the severity of the fire and, in the context of climate change, such conditions may become more frequent. This highlights the need for improved fire monitoring and intervention strategies.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"241-257"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618021","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Coatings on the Combustion Characteristics of Swedish Pine","authors":"Enya Zhang,&nbsp;Tracy Bradford,&nbsp;Chandrashekhar Kulkarni,&nbsp;Sergey Zlatogorsky,&nbsp;Eleni Asimakopoulou","doi":"10.1002/fam.70044","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70044","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>In recent years, there has been a dramatic increase in façade fires, which brought an urgent demand for relevant research to reduce façade flame spread. Wooden components, e.g., balconies and decking, are widely used as part of buildings and their façades and its preservation by chemical treatment is essential for their protection. Nevertheless, the use of wood preservatives can influence their fire properties. In this work, the effect of wood preservatives on wooden decking is experimentally investigated. Heat release rate and ignition times are recorded for Swedish pine samples coated with three different water-based preservatives and compared with non-coated samples and ones treated with fire retardants in the cone calorimeter test. thermal gravimetric analysis is conducted to determine reaction rate peaks and their reference temperature. A simplified kinetic model is derived from the experimental results, which may contribute to later computational work.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"295-307"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618167","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Theoretical Model of Transient Regression of Thermoplastic Materials During Flame Spread: Vaporization; Permanent Mass Loss; Surface Shape","authors":"Indrek S. Wichman,&nbsp;Linwei Mou,&nbsp;Sarzina Hossain,&nbsp;Fletcher J. Miller,&nbsp;Sandra L. Olson","doi":"10.1002/fam.70036","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70036","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This article examines a transient, one-dimensional model of surface regression during opposed flow flame spread over finite thickness, non-charring thermoplastics. Gas to solid conductive transfer from the flame drives sample heating. The solid degrades into volatile fuel molecules in two stages: (1) the pre-vaporization heat-up stage and (2) the vaporization/regression stage. The influence of the external (flame) heat flux on heat-up and regression is examined. Regression stalls eventually because the sample bottom temperature, which is fixed, is lower than the sample top vaporization temperature. The moving boundary value problem is described by the energy equation subject to a variable top surface energetic boundary condition. The energy flux from the external source (flame) is taken as constant. The regressing solid is transformed to a fixed-domain coordinate system in which it is coupled, nonlinearly, to the energetic boundary condition. This nonlinear system is solved numerically. Term-by-term evaluation of the numerical solution allows development of analytical energy balance formulas in the short and long time intervals of the regression stage. A physics based Peclet number analysis describes features of time dependent surface regression.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"227-240"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.70036","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Numerical Study of the Relationship Between Compartment Fire Evolution and External Fire Exposure Conditions","authors":"Anish Banerjee,&nbsp;Vasant Matsagar,&nbsp;David Lange","doi":"10.1002/fam.70039","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70039","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>In densely populated urban areas, the spread of fire between buildings is a significant risk. Many urban spaces have evolved with a preference for quick and cheap construction in deference to fire safety and adherence to any applicable local building regulations. With the increasing use of combustible and flammable materials inside and on our buildings, exacerbating the potential for building-to-building fire spread, it is therefore necessary to re-evaluate the threat to the built environment due to this scenario. In order to address this research gap, computational fluid dynamics is implemented as a tool to simulate the behaviour of a fire and to determine the spatial evolution of the external temperature and heat flux away from the burning compartment's external openings under varied fuel load, fire growth rate and ventilation modes. It is shown that these outputs are a function of the heat release inside of the compartment as well as the internal ventilation conditions, with internal doors being closed increasing the intensity and extent of external conditions. This gives insight into factors which could lead to subsequent secondary ignition away from the compartment of origin. We also show that for a given heat release rate, the criteria for window breakage and therefore the time at which window breakage occurs is irrelevant to the ultimate magnitude and extent of the external conditions. These reflect essential considerations, necessary for ignition criteria of novel/new material consideration in the context of building-to-building fire spread in high density housing stock.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"258-278"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618024","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Reaction-to-Fire Performance of Intumescent Coating After Ageing by Thermal and Moisture Exposure","authors":"Anna Sandinge,&nbsp;Per Blomqvist,&nbsp;Lars Schiøtt Sørensen,&nbsp;Anne Dederichs","doi":"10.1002/fam.70047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70047","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Materials and products age with time and their properties change. It is known that, for example, the mechanical strength may be deteriorated from ageing. To understand the ageing effect on the fire behaviour of materials and products is important to maintain the safety level of the construction or application. In this study, three different sandwich panels with intumescent coatings were selected for a study to evaluate the effect of accelerated ageing on reaction-to-fire properties. The accelerated ageing methods used were thermal exposure in 90°C and moisture exposure in 40°C and 90% RH. Samples were collected from ageing chambers after 1, 2 and 4 weeks. The reaction-to-fire properties were evaluated using the ISO 5660-1 cone calorimeter and the smoke density chamber, EN ISO 5659-2, with FTIR analysis of gas composition. The results show that ageing has an effect on the fire behaviour. Fire properties such as heat release rate and smoke production were unchanged or actually improved. Generally, the time to ignition was longer for the aged samples. The smoke density was affected as well as the smoke toxicity.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 3","pages":"318-333"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.70047","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147618129","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Regression and ANN-Based Prediction of Fire Temperature Curves for Single-Vehicle Fires in Underground Parking Structures","authors":"Khaliunaa Darkhanbat,&nbsp;Inwook Heo,&nbsp;Doohee Lee,&nbsp;Kang Su Kim,&nbsp;Seung-Ho Choi","doi":"10.1002/fam.70040","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70040","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Vehicle fires in underground parking structures can cause rapid temperature rises, posing significant threats to both structural integrity and occupant safety. This study develops predictive models for quantitatively estimating fire temperatures in single-vehicle fire scenarios within underground parking structures. A total of 25 single-vehicle fire test datasets were collected, and the maximum heat release rate, time to reach maximum heat release rate, and duration of maximum heat release rate were analyzed for each vehicle type. Based on the analysis results, various fire scenarios were constructed, and fire simulations were performed to derive time–temperature curves for each fire scenario. From the simulated curves, regression-based and artificial neural network (ANN)-based prediction models were developed to estimate the peak temperature and the temperature at the end of combustion for each fire scenario, using heat release rate as input variables. The predictive performance of both models was validated against the fire simulation results, with coefficients of variation below 0.2 and coefficients of determination above 0.84, indicating high accuracy. Furthermore, to examine the applicability of the proposed time–temperature curves to structural fire analysis, nonlinear finite element analysis of reinforced concrete beams was performed for fire resistance assessment. The results showed that the structural fire behavior predicted using the regression and ANN-based curves closely matched that obtained using fire simulation-based curves. The proposed temperature prediction models are expected to be effective tools for estimating thermal loads and evaluating the fire safety of structures subjected to single-vehicle fires in underground parking facilities.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 2","pages":"174-192"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146224555","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Thermal Characterisation of Millet to Develop Sustainable Intumescent Passive Fire Protection Systems","authors":"Z. S. Vermeulen,&nbsp;M. H. B. Mat Kiah,&nbsp;N. V. Flores Quiroz,&nbsp;R. S. Walls","doi":"10.1002/fam.70048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70048","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Intumescent paints, coatings, or sealants are a popular form of passive protection in the fire industry. However, the impact of their toxicity and constituent synthetic chemical ingredients is an important consideration for sustainability. This research experimentally studied an agricultural grain, known as millet, quantifying its unusual intumescent behaviour. It swells to approximately three times its size, forming a low conductivity char layer, making it an ideal base for potential biomass passive protection systems. The grain was analysed through three experimental methods, namely, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), hot stage analysis (HS), and cone calorimetry (CC), with consideration of the physical characteristics and thermal resistance development. Physical and chemical decomposition phenomena driving the intumescent behaviour were identified. TGA found millet to have four distinct thermal degradation stages, with similar behaviour for both whole and ground millet in air. This signifies that the grains' behaviour can be predicted independent of the implemented form. HS identified the visual decomposition stages of the grain, as well as gases and compounds released which potentially drive intumescence, with accelerated release from 180°C to 350°C, and initial and maximum expansion at 300°C and 330°C, respectively. Both whole and ground millet provided improved thermal resistance to the substrate in the CC, through formation of an expanded lattice-like structure with micro-scale openings. This demonstrates good potential for millet to provide protection to structural members in a fire.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 2","pages":"204-215"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.70048","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146224324","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental Analysis of Fire Behavior in Pine Forests and Agricultural Fields: Large-Scale Tests Conducted Within the European TREEADS Project","authors":"Andrea Klippel,&nbsp;Anja Hofmann-Böllinghaus,&nbsp;Kira Piechnik,&nbsp;Lukas Heydick,&nbsp;Hongyi Wu,&nbsp;Florian Köhler,&nbsp;Benjamin Klaffke","doi":"10.1002/fam.70045","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.70045","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Two large-scale experiments investigated fire spread mechanisms in vegetation ground fires in a pine forest and an agricultural field within the European TREEADS project. The tests, conducted in Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg, targeted regions with dry, sandy soils and extensive pine stands and aim to improve suppression strategies and wildfire research. The forest experiment was conducted on a 16 × 22 m plot with line ignition using a gasoline-diesel mix. Fire spread was documented with drone-based video and infrared imaging. Ninety-six thermocouples and two gas sensors were mounted on trees, and a mobile FTIR spectrometer enabled real-time smoke analysis. A tilled and foam-treated strip prevented uncontrolled spread. Under stable weather conditions (23°C, light wind, low soil moisture), a consistent temperature rise and distinct combustion phases were observed. Smoldering dominated in areas with mosses, grasses, and deadwood, with intermittent flaming, limited flame heights (&lt; 0.5 m), and substantial smoke production. Peak temperatures exceeded 500°C, and CO concentrations reached 238 ppm, though wind turbulence complicated gas sampling. The second experiment on a cut agricultural field near Nauen involved burning approximately 700 m² using a 20 m ignition line aligned with wind direction. Drone-based infrared monitoring captured rapid spread on the stubble surface. The results underscore the variability and measurement challenges of outdoor fires and highlight the necessity of continued large-scale experiments to support physical and numerical wildfire modeling. These findings provide essential empirical data for evaluating vegetation-specific burning behavior, improving sensor deployment strategies, and refining validation approaches for next-generation wildfire spread models under central European fuel and weather conditions, and supporting decision-making in wildfire management.</p>","PeriodicalId":12186,"journal":{"name":"Fire and Materials","volume":"50 2","pages":"193-203"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/fam.70045","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146224553","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}