Earth Surface Processes and Landforms最新文献

{"title":"Holocene landslides in the Fraser Canyon Corridor and implications for ‘ecohazard’ assessment","authors":"Aaron T. Steelquist,&nbsp;Julia Carr,&nbsp;Erin Seagren,&nbsp;Kyra Baird,&nbsp;Derek Heathfield,&nbsp;Brian Menounos,&nbsp;Isaac J. Larsen,&nbsp;Elizabeth Dingle,&nbsp;Jeremy Venditti","doi":"10.1002/esp.70089","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70089","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Landslides are important natural hazards to infrastructure and humans, but they also pose a hazard to the biosphere and constitute an ‘ecohazard’. Recent and prehistoric landslides in southwest British Columbia have significantly impacted local fluvial processes and nearby ecosystems. For example, the 2018 Big Bar landslide caused a major hydraulic barrier in the Fraser River, which impeded upstream salmon migration for 2 years. To better understand the impact of landslides on the biosphere, defined here as ’ecohazard’ impacts, we assessed the distribution, size and character of landslides near the Fraser River over the past 12 to 15 ka. We created a landslide inventory using 2560 km² of airborne lidar along the Fraser Canyon Corridor, a 375-km stretch of the Fraser River, which flows through varied topography and bedrock. We mapped 274 landslides with planform areas between 2 × 10³ and 2 × 10⁶ m² and estimated volumes that range from 600 to 1.05 × 10⁸ m³. While the landslides with the largest area were flows/spreads in volcanic rocks, landslides in intrusive and metamorphic rocks had the highest median area. Area–volume relations were consistent across lithology and failure styles. Area–frequency and volume–frequency distributions have a positive skew, in agreement with other landslide inventories. Area–runout relations were also consistent across classifications, meaning the likelihood of a given landslide event reaching the Fraser River is primarily controlled by valley morphology rather than lithology or specific failure mechanics. We propose an ecohazard impact framework to classify the risk posed to salmon migration for the different classes of landslides documented in our inventory. We found that landslides of similar size and character to the Big Bar landslide are relatively common within the Fraser River Corridor; however, their location within the valley will determine how likely they are to significantly impact the ecosystem.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70089","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144135676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A karst rather than periglacial origin for small enclosed depressions of the Landes Triangle, southwest France","authors":"Léa Bussière,&nbsp;Myriam Schmutz,&nbsp;Alain Dupuy","doi":"10.1002/esp.70091","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70091","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Small topographic depressions offer insight into past and present groundwater recharge processes. The Landes Triangle (SW France) is dotted with over 2,400 such depressions, whose origins and hydrogeological implications remain unclear. This paper aims to disentangle their origin, with emphasis on the Villagrains-Landiras anticline sector: a key recharge zone, which also features the highest density of depressions. We first evaluate three historical hypotheses with open GIS data at the regional scale, then detail the near-surface structure of a depression near the anticline with electrical resistivity tomographies and ground-penetrating radar. We identify two groups of depressions based on their morphology, distribution and geological context. One aligns with an aeolian origin. The other (encompassing 97% of the depressions near the anticline) suggests a karst origin, with more circular shapes and proximity to karst, streams, faults and neighbouring depressions. However, 18% of these lie outside the crypto-karst area derived from GIS references and may rather be of periglacial origin. Yet, our geophysical survey revealed subsidence but no evidence of cryogenic sediment or solifluction. We conclude that a karst origin remains the best hypothesis in the anticline area, and highlight that sole reliance on GIS references may underestimate crypto-karst extent. Further geological investigation is therefore needed to map its full extent and related water pathways near the anticline.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70091","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144135856","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Drainage divides migration of the Heihe River in the Qilian Mountains, northeastern Tibet: Insights for the drainage reorganization in an orogenic belt","authors":"Hongqiang Li,&nbsp;Daoyang Yuan,&nbsp;Qi Su,&nbsp;Guojun Si,&nbsp;Yameng Wen,&nbsp;Yanwen Chen","doi":"10.1002/esp.70084","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70084","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The evolution of the river systems in the Qilian Mountains is complex, shaped by a combination of factors, including tectonics, climate and lithology. While extensive research has been conducted on the regional tectonic evolution and surface processes, the evolution of internal drainage divides and trends in river system reorganization remain poorly understood. Under the influence of tectonic and climatic disturbances, drainage divides, as basin boundaries, continuously migrate, a process that can span tens of millions of years. Thus, the analysis of drainage divide stability provides new insights and constraints on understanding basin evolution mechanisms. This study evaluates the drainage divide stability of the Heihe River within the Qilian Mountains using the χ-plot and the Gilbert method. The results indicate that drainage divide stability varies across different parts of the basin, with a general pattern of synchronous expansion and contraction of the transverse and longitudinal rivers. The study reveals that the evolution of the Heihe River Basin is primarily controlled by regional tectonic evolution in the orogenic belt, with comparatively minor influences from climate, lithology and local fault activity. The evolutionary patterns observed in the Heihe River Basin offer valuable insights into the competitive dynamics between transverse and longitudinal rivers within orogenic belts and provide a new perspective on drainage reorganization in tectonically active regions.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144125900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quaternary non-karst caves in tills: A pilot study","authors":"Sebastian Tyszkowski,&nbsp;Halina Kaczmarek,&nbsp;Mateusz Kramkowski,&nbsp;Jan Urban,&nbsp;Daria Maria Kramkowska,&nbsp;Radosław Paternoga","doi":"10.1002/esp.70049","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70049","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Caves formed in unlithified glacial sediments are unique elements of geological heritage, unlike underground voids and networks of channels, which occur relatively frequently in Quaternary loess and loess-like deposits. Despite the significant potential for understanding collapse processes in extensive areas covered by glacial deposits, such cavities have been poorly investigated, partly due to their rarity and short lifespans. The paper explores the occurrence of natural caves within Quaternary unlithified tills in northern Poland on the example of previously identified caves (one of which was discovered by the authors). Situated in the northern part of the Polish Lowlands, the caves are located on steep slopes of river valleys and a seashore cliff. During the study, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) was used to gather detailed morphometric data and create highly accurate cave models of these relatively young objects subject to rapid transformation, thereby providing the opportunity to formulate and discuss preliminary concepts of their genesis. The caves are not long – their length varies from 4.7 m to 11 m – but their morphology and geological conditions, and the interrelations between these features, suggest that these non-karst cavities were formed after the last ice sheet had retreated and that their development was associated with the presence of natural and glaciotectonic fractures within silty tills and with piping processes. These are young forms subjected to constant evolution that will lead to their eventual disappearance.</p><p>The gathered data (especially the high-resolution TLS-based models) will be used in the future to monitor transformations and assess the pace of changes. They may also provide an impetus to search for more such objects in fresh exposures on eroded slopes of valleys or banks of waterbodies.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144118148","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Morphogenesis of high mountains entirely covered by granitoid boulders and blocks in the northeastern part of Australia","authors":"Masahiro Chigira,&nbsp;Makoto Kaneko","doi":"10.1002/esp.70083","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70083","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Boulder fields are a typical feature of granitoid landscapes. Previously reported boulder fields are commonly an accumulation of boulders on gently undulating surfaces; however, sometimes boulders form high mountains. The Black and Melville Mountains, northeast Australia, have relative heights of 300 to 500 m and are entirely covered by granitoid boulders and blocks. They are underlain by Permian granitoid rocks intruded into the Silurian–Devonian strata. We performed field surveys, UAV observations and satellite image analysis of these mountains using Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) obtained from satellite data. Melville Mountain has low-relief top surfaces surrounded by steep slopes covered by boulders with (sub)angular blocks. The low-relief surfaces are assumed to be an exhumed Jurassic unconformity, below which the granitoid rocks became corestones (boulders) by subsurface spheroidal weathering. The limited exposure of the bedrock suggests that the granitoids were columnar jointed, which facilitated the spheroidal weathering. The steep slopes are covered by boulders originating from the low-relief top surfaces and rock blocks from the rock columns below the zone of spheroidal weathering. Black Mountain lacks low-relief top surfaces and comprises steep slopes covered with rock blocks. Boulders on Black Mountain exist at the feet of steep slopes and are mixed with rock blocks. The boulders are probably from previous low-relief top surfaces that are now lost. Columnar joints, subsurface spheroidal weathering, uplift and erosion are essential for the formation of the high mountains covered by boulders and blocks of granitoid.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144100659","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The impact of outer-bar alongshore variability on inner-bar rip dynamics","authors":"Drude Fritzbøger Christensen,&nbsp;Britt Raubenheimer,&nbsp;Steve Elgar","doi":"10.1002/esp.70086","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70086","url":null,"abstract":"<p>A field-calibrated morphodynamic model (MIKE21) is used to investigate the importance of the dimensions of a rip channel across an outer sand bar to the hydrodynamics and morphological evolution of an inner sand bar and rip channel for a range of initial bathymetries and wave conditions. The model was driven with offshore wave conditions and idealized bathymetry representative of field conditions near Duck, NC, USA during which strong rips and associated channel erosion were observed to occur over an inner bar. Consistent with prior results, the strength of the hydro-morphological coupling between the two bars depends on the dimensions of the outer-bar perturbation, as well as the wave forcing. The results suggest that in double-barred systems, a single moderate-scale perturbation (<i>O(</i>0.1 m deep, 10 m wide<i>)</i>) in the outer-bar elevation can lead to the generation of a rip current and associated erosion of a rip channel across the inner bar. The simulations suggest that the magnitude of the inner-bar rip flow, the depth to which the inner-bar channel is eroded, and the alongshore position of the inner-bar rip relative to the outer-bar perturbation depend on the non-dimensional outer-bar channel depth, the transverse rip-channel slope, and the wave height, period and directional spreading. For deep and narrow outer-bar channels, the outer-inner bar coupling is strong. In contrast, for shallow and wide outer-bar channels, the system may alternate between being coupled and uncoupled with unstable locations of the inner-bar rip.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70086","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144100660","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The hydro-geomorphic effects of wooden leaky barriers in a steep headwater stream","authors":"Stephen Addy,&nbsp;Mark Wilkinson,&nbsp;Paul Quinn","doi":"10.1002/esp.70079","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70079","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Purposely placed in-stream wooden leaky barriers (LBs) with lower gaps to facilitate flow during average conditions have become a popular type of nature-based intervention in catchments for flood risk mitigation. Empirical evidence on their effectiveness remains rare, however. The hydro-geomorphic effects of 16 LBs were monitored over three years on the Elm Sike, a small upland stream (catchment area: 0.33 km²) in the Scottish Borders, UK. The aims of the structures were to: (1) increase water storage and roughness and, in turn, attenuate and delay flood peaks; and (2) trap and store coarse sediment to reduce sediment-related problems downstream. Annual topographical surveys were conducted to assess geomorphic changes, and continuous 5-minute water levels were recorded to assess changes in peak flow travel times. Two-dimensional hydraulic modelling (HEC-RAS 2D) was undertaken to assess the hydraulic impact of the structures and geomorphic changes. The LBs had no effect on peak flow travel time and rate of stage rise or fall based on 22 events with an Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) of ≥ 3.7%. Hydraulic modelling showed limited velocity reduction and expansion of inundation extent due to the LBs for 50% AEP flows, but slightly greater effects for larger 5% AEP flows. However, for 50% AEP flows, inundation extent increased and velocities decreased more significantly due to morphological changes initiated by the structures. The limited hydrological and hydraulic impacts were related to the small size of the structures, close spacing and the steep, confined valley setting that limited water storage capacity. At the end of the three-year period, a reach-wide net deposition response of 3.49 ± 0.36 m³ and a 5.3% loss of total LB backwater storage were observed, but local geomorphic response due to the LBs was spatially variable. Backwater capacity at 10 structures was reduced, and the lower gap increased at eight structures due to bed scour, indicating accelerated underflow. Multivariable analysis showed that gap height change was inversely related to backwater shear stress, channel cross-section area and channel slope. No factors explained backwater sediment deposition, but a threshold lower gap height of ≤0.4 m for initiating deposition was evident. These hydro-geomorphic observations have implications for the design and placement of LBs in river restoration and flood risk management projects.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70079","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144074558","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Suspended transport of gravel in rivers: Empirical evidence from the 2022 flood in the Misa River (Eastern Apennines, Italy)","authors":"Andrea Brenna,&nbsp;Vittoria Scorpio,&nbsp;Alvise Finotello,&nbsp;Filippo Zarabara,&nbsp;Nicola Surian","doi":"10.1002/esp.70081","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70081","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In September 2022, an exceptional flood in the Misa River basin (Eastern Apennines, Italy) resulted in the unusual deposition of gravelly lobes on terraces up to 6 m higher than the riverbed. These deposits suggest that coarse bed sediments were transported in suspension rather than as bedload, as typically occurs under competent flow conditions. To verify this hypothesis, we combined field evidence—obtained from geomorphological and sedimentological surveys—with theoretical insights based on sediment transport theory. Our findings indicate that medium-sized gravels, which are part of the riverbed material, were transported in suspension within the water column. This phenomenon required specific conditions to generate the necessary shear stress and energy, including (i) a high-magnitude flood enriched with fine sediments, which increased the fluid density and viscosity, and (ii) an entrenched channel with stable banks that limited channel widening during the flood event. When these processes coincided with alluvial plain inundation by overbank flows, gravel transported in suspension was able to reach and settle on elevated surfaces, such as terraces far above the active channel. These observations highlight the potential for gravel-bed rivers to support the transport of coarse sediment in suspension under extreme flood conditions and specific geomorphological constraints on the active river channels. By demonstrating the role of sediment concentration, channel morphology and flood dynamics, our research provides new insights into sediment transport mechanisms and contributes to a broader understanding of the morphodynamic processes governing gravel-bed rivers under such exceptional conditions, with broad implications for refining flood hazard models and improving sediment transport predictions in fluvial systems.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70081","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143944790","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Links between pore system evolution, lake genesis and limnological characteristics: Evidence from basin morphology, specific conductivity and lake level variability on San Salvador Island, Bahamas","authors":"Charles I. Breithaupt,&nbsp;Ronald A. Knoll,&nbsp;Jason D. Gulley,&nbsp;Shawn M. Fullmer,&nbsp;Paul J. Moore,&nbsp;Charles Kerans,&nbsp;Patricia Spellman,&nbsp;Natalie Salazar","doi":"10.1002/esp.70048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70048","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Lake-aquifer connectivity in coastal carbonate platforms is governed by diagenetic and depositional processes which influence basin morphology. Because coastal aquifers are known to have tidally controlled water levels, tidal fluctuations in lakes may be used to expand areal measurements of permeability and establish a link between regional-scale connectivity and lake genesis. To evaluate the link between basin connectivity and genesis, we compared time series of water level fluctuations collected at high temporal resolution in the ocean and 24 lakes and ponds on San Salvador Island, Bahamas. By treating each lake as a well with a very large footprint, we calculated apparent hydraulic diffusivity and aquifer permeability of the rocks surrounding each lake to relative and regional-scale connectivity of lakes to the ocean. We paired apparent permeabilities (10^−14.4 to 10^−9.8 m²) with observations of basin morphologies derived from light detection and ranging (LIDAR) to identify five distinct lake types that reflect varying degrees of diagenesis of rocks separating lakes from the ocean: (1) Back beach flood basins formed due of sedimentation and sea-level rise. Back beach flood basins that formed during the Holocene have the lowest apparent permeabilities (10^−14.4 m²). (2) Cutoff lagoons, which sediments connect offshore cays, and plug tidal inlets resulting in isolated lakes. Cutoff lagoons which formed during the Holocene also have low apparent permeabilities (10^−13.9 to 10^−12.8 m²). (3) Dune swale lakes formed when rising sea-levels flooded topography created by previous sea-level highstands and have apparent permeabilities of 10^−12.5 m². Dune swale lakes have (4) karst lakes, which form when caves or touching vugs link lakebeds to the ocean have the highest apparent permeabilities of 10^−9.8 m². (5) Overflow ponds, which receive water when high tides, cause neighbouring karst lakes to spill over a topographic divide. For lakes which do not exhibit any aquifer/ocean connectivity, we suggest low permeability exposure surfaces lining the lakebed drive hydraulic isolation.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143949961","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microtopography-scale research on the sediment connectivity of hillslopes based on optimised M&V depression-filling and a simulated annealing algorithm","authors":"Ke Song,&nbsp;Wenyu Wang,&nbsp;Xinlan Liang,&nbsp;Yang Liu,&nbsp;Ying Cao,&nbsp;Yong Wang","doi":"10.1002/esp.70082","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70082","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Sediment connectivity serves as a crucial indicator for assessing the extent of soil erosion, thus reflecting the potential sediment transport capacity within a given watershed. Depression filling is one of the most elementary operation procedures in the hydrologic analysis of surface microtopography. However, the influence of microtopography on sediment connectivity calculated by a high-efficiency algorithm at the hillslope scale remains uncertain. In this study, we developed an improved depression-filling algorithm based on digital elevation models (DEMs) to evaluate the sediment index of connectivity (<i>IC</i>) under different microtopographic treatments (surfaces with continuous depressions, alternating depressions, continuous mounds, alternating mounds, continuous mounds and depressions, and alternating mounds and depressions) during rainfall events. A smooth surface was used for the control treatment. The results indicated that the presence of microtopographic conditions and the type of algorithm significantly influenced sediment connectivity and yield. The mean <i>IC</i> values obtained from different algorithms notably differed. The combined M&amp;V depression-filling–simulated annealing algorithms (M&amp;V–SAA) generated relatively few parallel flow directions, thereby promoting the creation of additional continuous sediment connectivity paths. The slope surface with alternating mounds significantly increased the sediment yield, whereas that with alternating mounds and depressions markedly decreased the sediment yield at a rainfall intensity of 60 mm h⁻¹. The <i>IC</i> value calculated via the M&amp;V–SAA algorithm was significantly positively correlated with the sediment yield, whereas the <i>IC</i> values calculated via the other algorithms were not significantly correlated with the sediment yield. A simulated annealing mechanism was integrated into the M&amp;V algorithm, thereby increasing the accuracy of the calculated <i>IC</i> values at the microtopographic scale. These findings could critically inform the optimisation of sediment connectivity models and provide a precise quantitative description of sediment transport during rainfall events.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-05-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143944789","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}