Farming System最新文献

{"title":"Machine learning reveals that duration dominates rate in driving soil nitrogen cycling responses to long-term fertilization","authors":"Beilei Wei ,&nbsp;Jinrong Wang ,&nbsp;Shunting He ,&nbsp;Yongfeng Sun ,&nbsp;Xiaoqi Zhang ,&nbsp;Shijie He ,&nbsp;Huarong Ling ,&nbsp;Qingfang Yao ,&nbsp;Zhigang Huang ,&nbsp;Ziting Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100196","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100196","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Intensive nitrogen fertilization in agricultural ecosystems has profound impacts on soil nitrogen cycling, yet the mechanistic understanding of how long-term nitrogen inputs alter microbial-mediated nitrogen transformations remains limited. While previous research has focused primarily on application rates, the temporal dimension of nitrogen management has been largely overlooked. Here, we present a global meta-analysis of 2824 observations from 88 field studies specifically examining how nitrogen application duration, rather than just amount, shapes soil nitrogen cycling processes. Machine learning analysis revealed application duration as the dominant driver of nitrogen cycling changes, explaining greater variance than that explained by application rates across all functional genes examined. Long-term nitrogen application (&gt;20 years) dramatically increased ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) abundance by 904 % while modestly affecting ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) by 142 %, fundamentally altering the balance of ammonia oxidation processes. In acidic soils with long-term nitrogen application, AOB responses (1107 %) substantially exceeded AOA responses (179 %), demonstrating that substrate availability becomes the primary driver of microbial community structure structure under long-term nitrogen enrichment. Our findings demonstrate that nitrogen application duration, more than amount, determines soil nitrogen cycling responses, creating progressive changes with substantial shifts occurring after 20 years of continuous fertilization. These results reveal duration-dependent mechanisms that provide a new framework for nitrogen management, enabling simultaneous maintenance of agricultural productivity and reduction of environmental impacts through duration-optimized application strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 2","pages":"Article 100196"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145993613","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Geospatial and geostatistical analysis of land fragmentation and parcel shape indicators for sustainable farm structure in land consolidation","authors":"Fırat Arslan ,&nbsp;Hasan Değirmenci","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100173","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100173","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Land consolidation (LC) is one of the key implementations to improve farm structure by enhancing parcel shape and reducing land fragmentation. Many researchers have developed indicators to measure parcel shape deformation and land fragmentation levels; however, these indicators often lack consistency for assessing land consolidation projects. In this study, we demonstrate that our newly developed New Parcel Shape Index (NSI) and New Land Fragmentation Index (NLFI) are more effective for assessing land consolidation projects. Geospatial and geostatistical analyses were applied to calculate the new indicators using ArcGIS-ArcMAP, with Excel utilised for calculating and comparing other indicators. To test these analyses, the cadastral data and reports of the Türkiye Malatya Province Arguvan District Tatkınlık Village Land Consolidation project were used as material.</div><div>As a result, it was observed that parcels with NSI values approaching 1 were close to a rectangular shape, while those deviating from an NSI value of 1 exhibited deformation. Other shape indices were found to perform poorly in parcel shape analysis. In measuring the level of land fragmentation, farms with small NLFI values were observed to be less fragmented than those with large NLFI values. Other land fragmentation indexes showed poor performance compared to NLFI. As a result, NSI is recommended for shape analysis, and NLFI is recommended for assessing land fragmentation. These indices can be utilised in before and after LC evaluations or in determining priority LC areas.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100173"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145270392","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nitrous oxide emissions and wheat yield responses to nitrogen rate and source in contrasting rainfed cropping systems in Morocco","authors":"Mohamed Boullouz ,&nbsp;Mohamed Louay Metougui ,&nbsp;Nabil El Khatri ,&nbsp;Kamal Alahiane ,&nbsp;Ngonidzashe Chirinda","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100188","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100188","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The use of nitrogen (N) fertilization in agricultural production contributes to soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions, yet data on the magnitude of those emissions are scarce for rainfed cropping systems in North Africa. This study quantified N₂O fluxes under five fertilizer regimes in two contrasting Moroccan agroclimatic zones: a wetter site (Larache) and a drier site (Settat). Treatments included current farmer practices (CFP), regional recommended rates with a conventional source (RFP), RFP plus a urease inhibitor (MCDHS), a high N level (HNL), and unfertilized control. Results showed contrasting responses between sites: in Larache, N₂O emissions increased exponentially when N input exceeded 140 kg ha⁻¹ (RFP), peaking at 7.14 kg N₂O-N ha⁻¹ under HNL, with an average emission factor of 1 %; While in Settat, emissions rose with the application of N but plateaued beyond the N rate of 39 kg N ha⁻¹ (CFP), with a mean EF of 0.6 %. The urease inhibitor (MCDHS) increased grain yield by 27 % in Larache without reducing emissions, whereas, in Settat, it had no significant effect on yield or cumulative N₂O emissions compared to RFP. A generalized additive model identified soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) as the main driver of N₂O fluxes across both sites. Overall, these findings indicate that yield and N₂O responses to fertilization are strongly regulated by environmental conditions and that the IPCC Tier 1 emission factor underestimates emissions in Morocco wheat systems, highlighting the need for region-specific Tier 2 emission factors.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100188"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145474295","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Improving statistical estimates of the economic cost of climate change","authors":"Timothy S. Thomas,&nbsp;Channing Arndt,&nbsp;Uchechukwu Jarrett,&nbsp;Hamid Mohtadi","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2026.100198","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2026.100198","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100198"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146037053","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Metabolite-driven fungal recruitment in rhizosphere explains superiority of organic fertilizer in enhancing the soil fertility of wheat","authors":"Shancong Wang ,&nbsp;Xinru Hu ,&nbsp;Reda M.M. Ahmed ,&nbsp;Guihong Yin ,&nbsp;Xiao Jun A. Liu ,&nbsp;Haotian Wang ,&nbsp;Jiameng Guo ,&nbsp;Peng Zhao ,&nbsp;Chang Li ,&nbsp;Qinghua Yang ,&nbsp;Lei Gao ,&nbsp;Ruixin Shao","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100181","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100181","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Long-term application of conventional synthetic fertilizers (CF) significantly impairs soil fertility, particularly in the intensive wheat/maize rotation systems. The problem is even worse in medium-low yield farmlands such as lime concretion black soil, resulting in an inevitable threat to world's food security. Therefore, adopting innovative alternatives becomes an urgent need to improve soil fertility and fulfill agricultural high yield demands and sustainable development. Thus, we conducted a two-year field experiment in lime concretion black soil to compare the divergent effects of controlled-release (CRF), organic (OF) and microbial (MF) fertilizers on soil fertility improvement under wheat cultivation. Combined analysis using Linear discriminant analysis effect size, Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling revealed that CRF improved soil nitrogen retention via homocarnosine-mediated recruitment of the fungi <em>Solicoccozyma aeria</em> and <em>Lecythophora</em>. Specifically, CRF increased total nitrogen and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen by 17.3 % and 11.8 % compared to CF, respectively. Interestingly, OF demonstrated the most comprehensive improvement in soil fertility. OF enhanced multiple soil fertility by enriching Melatonin and Trioxilin A3, which facilitated the recruitment of <em>Lophotrichus</em> sp. and <em>Lecythophora</em> sp. This led to significant increases relative to CF in soil organic matter (18.3 %), total nitrogen (13.8 %), alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (10.0 %), available phosphorus (17.2 %), and available potassium (29.0 %). In contrast, MF promoted carbon accumulation by enriching melatonin and 3-hydroxycinnamic acid, recruiting <em>Neocosmospora rubicola</em>, which resulted in a 5.15 % increase in soil organic matter and an 11.4 % rise in microbial biomass carbon compared to CF. These findings demonstrate that novel fertilizers enhance soil fertility through metabolite-mediated recruitment of functional fungi rather than bacteria, with OF exhibiting the greatest synergistic effect between the rhizosphere metabolome and fungal assemblage. This study lays a theoretical foundation for tailored strategies that simultaneously enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability in lime concretion black soil regions under wheat/maize rotation systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100181"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145227695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimizing water and fertilizer management reduces carbon and water footprints for winter wheat production in China","authors":"Jin Shi ,&nbsp;Haihe Gao ,&nbsp;Yuan Liu ,&nbsp;Enke Liu ,&nbsp;Joann K. Whalen ,&nbsp;Xiaoguang Niu ,&nbsp;Yan Yan ,&nbsp;Haijun Zhang ,&nbsp;Jiawen Yu ,&nbsp;Xurong Mei","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100185","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100185","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The grand challenge for sustainable farming systems is to maintain agricultural productivity in a changing climate with water resource constraints. Here, we present a spatiotemporal footprint framework to optimize agricultural activities in winter wheat systems, based on a 30-year integrated assessment from 1991 to 2020 in China. During this period, agricultural activities in China's winter wheat production system emitted 66.6 × 10⁶ t CO₂eq yr⁻¹ and consumed 112 × 10⁹ m³ yr⁻¹ of water annually. The Huang-Huai-Hai Plain had high greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption, yet maintained relatively low product-level footprints. From 2001 to 2020, synergistic reductions in carbon and water footprints were achieved by optimizing fertilizer practices for yield improvement. Scenario-based mitigation analysis revealed that substituting organic alternatives for chemical fertilizers reduced emissions by 12 %, while powering irrigation equipment with renewable energy lowered emissions by 7.0 %, and improving irrigation efficiency reduced water consumption by 3 %, relative to the baseline scenario. Together, precision fertilization and energy-efficient irrigation were highly impactful, reducing carbon emissions by up to 20 % and being a practical strategy to enhance food security and environmental sustainability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100185"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145334184","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Livelihood and energy-carbon dynamics of livestock-based integrated farming system: Assessment and implications for sustainable farming","authors":"Gaurendra Gupta ,&nbsp;D.R. Palsaniya ,&nbsp;Manjanagouda S. Sannagoudar ,&nbsp;Bishwa Bhaskar Choudhary ,&nbsp;Samir Barman ,&nbsp;Mukesh Choudhary ,&nbsp;Deepak Upadhyay ,&nbsp;R.K. Patel ,&nbsp;S.K. Singh ,&nbsp;Khem Chand ,&nbsp;Sadhna Pandey ,&nbsp;Manju Suman","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100183","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100183","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Challenges of climate-resilient agricultural production, along with environmental sustainability, guided the study on livestock-based integrated farming systems (LIFS) to explore their merits and implications for sustainable farming. Consequently, a 3-year life cycle assessment of a 3-ha LIFS with 30 adult cattle units and diversified components (45 % food crops, 33.8 % fodder, 17.5 % vegetables, 2.5 % flowers, 1.3 % fruits, and allied activities) was conducted to evaluate among its components and against the traditional groundnut-wheat cropping system (GWCS). The study assessed ecosystem services, including resource recycling, productivity, profitability, employment, and energy-carbon dynamics involving the life cycle assessment approach. Findings reveal that LIFS yielded 80,178 kg wheat equivalent ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, US$8952 net returns, 4,55,368 MJ energy output, and 33,974 kg carbon output from inputs of 90,791 MJ energy and GHG emissions equivalent to 14,942 kg carbon. Compared to GWCS, LIFS achieved 8.4× higher productions, 6.4× greater returns, 6.6× more employment, 3.0× higher energy productivity, and 4.6× greater net carbon gain due to crop–livestock synergy with improved management. Among components, livestock dominated inputs (86 % cost, 66 % energy, 92 % carbon) and outputs (77 % production, 66 % returns, 59 % employment), thus playing a crucial role in production and environmental sustainability. However, horticultural crops showed higher unit productivity and returns. The carbon footprint of LIFS (0.69 kg CO₂ eq.) was higher than GWCS but better than similar livestock + crop systems. Conclusively, LIFS enhances climate resilience and ecosystem services; however, optimizing livestock's energy-carbon use can further impart greater environmental sustainability, offering valuable insights for researchers and policymakers to focus on immediate adoption of LIFS for stable livelihood, along with setting the long-term goal for sustaining the energy-carbon use to evolve a ‘total sustainability’ of production systems in study region as well as similar agroecology worldwide.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100183"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145190141","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrated grass-livestock-viticulture system triggers soil microbiome, grape growth, and grape disease suppression cascades","authors":"Shaowei Cui ,&nbsp;Decai Jin ,&nbsp;Lianzhu Zhou ,&nbsp;Xiaoqing Huang ,&nbsp;Hainan Chong ,&nbsp;Dong Li ,&nbsp;Hui Wu ,&nbsp;Jianyu Wang ,&nbsp;Fanfang Kong ,&nbsp;Haijun Xiao ,&nbsp;Yongqiang Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100186","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100186","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Soil microbiomes play a vital role in agricultural ecosystems. Cover crops are a key vineyard management strategy, that improves soil health, suppresses weeds, and promotes nutrient cycling. The grass-livestock-viticulture system further enhances sustainability by optimizing resource use, increasing productivity, and reducing inputs. However, the underlying ecological mechanisms are not well understood. This study investigates these mechanisms from a microbiological perspective. Field investigations showed that both grass planting and sheep grazing significantly enhanced leaf growth, with grazing further promoting new shoot development. Both treatments also reduced grape disease incidence compared to clean tillage. Microbial analysis revealed that enhanced grape growth and disease suppression were closely associated with shifts in the microbial community. Grazing significantly increased bacterial diversity in the inter-row soil but decreased fungal diversity in the grapevine root zone. Both grass planting and grazing increased fungal diversity in the inter-row. Grapevines in these treatments recruited beneficial microbes that supported nutrient cycling and pathogen suppression, including bacteria (e.g., <em>Aggregatilinea</em>, <em>Niallia</em>, <em>Nocardioides</em>) and fungi (e.g., <em>Petriella</em>, <em>Cheilymenia</em>, <em>Pseudaleuria</em>), while suppressing pathogenic fungi (e.g., <em>Fusarium</em>, <em>Aspergillus</em>, <em>Gibberella</em>), especially under grazing. Microbial functional genes involved in nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon cycling were significantly enriched, especially under grazing. Both treatments also increased bacterial network complexity and positive interactions, with grazing simplifying but strengthening fungal connectivity in the root zones. Our study provides valuable insights into microbiome-mediated ecological effects in integrated agroforestry systems, guiding the optimization of soil microbiomes to promote sustainable vineyard production.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100186"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145364700","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring the productivity per unit of livestock, land and labour of organic multi-species livestock farms in six European countries","authors":"Enrique Muñoz-Ulecia ,&nbsp;Myriam Grillot ,&nbsp;Marc Benoit ,&nbsp;Guillaume Martin","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100187","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100187","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Farm diversification is increasingly suggested as a way to improve agriculture's productivity and sustainability. However, the role of livestock remains under-explored, particularly whether diversification of organic farms with multiple livestock species increases productivity. We assessed the livestock, land and labour productivity of 96 organic multi-species livestock farms in six European countries. We aggregated farm's production of commercialized crop and livestock products in a unit of agricultural production (kg of protein) and an economic unit (income in €). We then calculated agricultural productivity of each farm per unit of livestock (LSU), land (ha) and labour (AWU). We also calculated the livestock productivity (kg of protein per LSU) of each livestock enterprise (dairy cattle, beef cattle, meat sheep, dairy sheep, goats, poultry and pigs) on each farm. We found that most organic multi-species livestock farms are as productive as their specialised counterparts per unit of livestock, land and labour, with medians of 103.8 kg of protein/LSU, 91.2 kg of protein/ha and 2214.7 kg of protein/AWU, respectively. Farms that included a monogastric species had higher agricultural productivity than those that included ruminant species alone (i.e., cattle and sheep). The high variability among farms and livestock species requires nuancing the view of diversification as a silver-bullet strategy and exploring the factors that promote or hinder the success of livestock diversification to increase productivity. This study provides the first comparison of agricultural and economic productivity of organic multi-species commercial farms across six European countries and including seven livestock combinations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100187"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145474296","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Soil organic carbon enhancement via small macroaggregate stabilization under long-term nitrogen and short-term organic amendments","authors":"Hui Cao ,&nbsp;Xiquan Wang ,&nbsp;Junming Liu ,&nbsp;Sen Li ,&nbsp;Sunusi Amin Abubakar ,&nbsp;Yang Gao ,&nbsp;Shoutian Ma","doi":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100182","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.farsys.2025.100182","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nitrogen fertilizer is essential for maintaining crop yields. However, excessive application degrades soil structure, accelerates soil nutrient loss, and threatens sustainable agriculture. Organic amendments can alleviate in alleviating soil degradation, but the effects of different organic amendments on aggregate stability and soil organic carbon stock (SOCs) under long-term nitrogen fertilization remain poorly understood. This study was conducted during the winter wheat season within a winter wheat–summer maize rotation system in the North China Plain. In this season, irrigation is frequent, agricultural inputs are intensive, and carbon loss is considerable. Enhancing SOCs in this season is therefore crucial for maintaining soil fertility and productivity. A two-year experiment was conducted under long-term nitrogen fertilization using a split-plot design. The main plots consisted of two nitrogen levels: N0 (0 kg ha⁻¹) and N240 (240 kg ha⁻¹). Four types of OA as the subplots: straw return (S), chicken manure (M), mushroom residue (MR), and biochar (B). Results showed that nitrogen fertilizer and organic amendments significantly increased SOCs, with N240-B showing the highest SOCs, 21.61 % higher than that of the S (<em>P&lt;0.05</em>). In &gt; 5 mm aggregates, the SOCs of N0-B were the highest, 100.59 % and 22.27 % greater than those of N0-S and N240-B, respectively. In the 0.25–0.5 mm aggregates, the SOC of N240-S was significantly higher than other treatments, 192.57 % and 44.57 % higher than N240-B and N0-S, respectively. Meanwhile, nitrogen fertilizer reduced aggregate stability, whereas organic amendments increased the proportion of macroaggregates and the stability of aggregates. The MWD of N0-B was the highest, 22.79 % greater than that of N0-S. Path analysis and random forest modeling indicated that SOCs in the 0.25–0.5 mm fraction contributed significantly to SOCs. These findings demonstrate that organic amendments—particularly biochar—can effectively improve soil structure and enhance SOCs in intensively managed wheat systems under long-term nitrogen input.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100522,"journal":{"name":"Farming System","volume":"4 1","pages":"Article 100182"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145425131","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}