Chemical Senses最新文献

{"title":"Irregular vomeronasal system of hedgehogs is intermediate between segregated and uniform: how was type-2 receptor (V2R)-pathway in Laurasiatheria lost during evolution?","authors":"Daisuke Kondoh, Yusuke K Kawai, Keiko Sakai, Yusuke Tanaka, Jumpei Tomiyasu","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf036","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf036","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Most mammals detect important specific chemicals such as pheromones via the vomeronasal system (VNS). The types-1 (V1R) and -2 (V2R) families of vomeronasal receptors detect volatile and water-soluble substances, respectively, and couple with G protein α subunits i2 (Gαi2) and o (Gαo), respectively. The V1R/Gαi2- and V2R/Gαo-neurons in the vomeronasal organ (VNO), respectively project to the anterior and posterior halves of the accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) (i.e. segregated type) in rodents and some other mammalian species. In contrast, the VNO in most species in the Laurasiatheria clade contains only V1R/Gαi2-neurons that project to the entire AOB (i.e. uniform type). Considering the above, the posterior pathway for identifying specific emitters via the V2R families might have disappeared from the Laurasiatheria clade. Here, we analyzed the VNS of hedgehogs, one of the earliest divergent groups in the Laurasiatheria clade. In the African pigmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris), immunohistochemical staining using antibodies against Gαi2 and Gαo revealed that the VNO contains V1R/Gαi2- and V2R/Gαo-neurons. The vomeronasal nerve and glomerular layers of the hedgehog AOB were positive for Gαi2, and the posterior half was also positive for Gαo. This profile is intermediate between the segregated and uniform types of the mammalian VNS. Dual immunofluorescence staining also indicated that the posterior glomeruli of the hedgehog AOB comprised mixtures of V1R/Gαi2- and V2R/Gαo-axons. These features of the hedgehog VNS seem to reflect the process of evolutionary disappearance of V2R-pathway within Laurasiatheria.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145091293","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Common scents? A review of potentially shared chemical signals in the order Carnivora.","authors":"Holly Root-Gutteridge, Neil de Kock, Madeleine Young, Andrew C Gill, Jake A Penny, Thomas W Pike, Daniel S Mills","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf019","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf019","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Many animals transmit information in the form of chemical signals to modify behavior or induce physiological change in receivers. For some taxa, such as species in the order Carnivora, chemical signals are known to provide a critical mode of communication, although they are still poorly understood compared to other signal modalities. Here, we review the literature to identify and categorize potential chemical signals within the Carnivora with a view to determining commonalities based on sex, taxon, and function. Data were drawn from 112 publications, dating from 1896 to 2021. Of the 1,532 discrete chemicals identified, 169 were detected in > 5 species, with 58 found in ≥ 10 species. However, multiple different names were often used to report the same compound, reducing the transparency of the literature. Two hundred and fifty-two chemicals were identified as biomarkers, i.e. associated with specific behavioral contexts (dominance hierarchy, appeasement, agonistic, etc.) or specific demographic traits (age, sex, etc.). Few studies established a causal link between these biomarkers and behavioral or physiological changes, so only a few could be definitively described as behaviorally functional bioactive signals. We found high variability concerning which species, chemicals, and sources were represented in the literature, which could potentially lead to a perceptual bias in the relative importance of certain chemicals. Finally, we propose a method for standardized reporting of chemical signals and suggest that future work should focus on a more consistent expansion of the range of species, products, and chemical types analyzed so that the phylogenetic relationship of chemical signals across taxa can be determined.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12228039/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144246656","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Odors as cognitive constructs: history of odor classification and attempts to map odor percepts to physical and chemical parameters.","authors":"Richard L Doty","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf022","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf022","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Attempts to map odor percepts to physical and chemical parameters have a long and challenging history. In contrast to color vision, where three classes of photoreceptors respond to the same stimulus property (wavelength), ~400 classes of olfactory receptors are available to respond in a non-linear non-additive fashion to ~5000 different chemical parameters. Theoretically, millions of permutations between structural elements of chemicals and their smells are possible, and some chemicals with different structures have the same odor and vice versa. Importantly, the same odor quality can come from multiple environmental objects and most odors depend upon the synthesis of a complex melody of volatile chemicals that individually can have dissimilar smells. At the individual receptor level, both agonists and antagonists within a mixture can impact receptor function. Hence, it is perhaps not surprising that no universal relationship between odor quality and underlying physical or chemical dimensions analogous to spectral wavelength for vision or air pressure waves for hearing has yet been identified. This review provides a historical account of psychological odor categorization, attempts to map odor percepts to physiochemical parameters, and attendant pitfalls. It concludes that perceived odor qualities may be best viewed as cognitive constructs with attendant variability due to individual experiences, linguistic processes, and biologic factors that do not map well to universal physiochemical dimensions.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12287700/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144607573","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A new method for automated olfactory threshold testing.","authors":"Veikko Surakka, Marko Björkbacka, Jani Lylykangas, Jussi Rantala, Timo Salpavaara, Jarmo Verho, Oleg Spakov, Venla Kamppari, Philipp Müller, Antti Vehkaoja, Pasi Kallio, Divesh Thaploo, Thomas Hummel","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf029","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf029","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>We present a new method for fully self-administered olfactory testing. Technical development and testing and 2 user studies were conducted to test the functionality of a prototype device called Automated Olfactory Threshold Test (AutomOT). Technical testing showed repeatable functioning of the developed olfactory display technology in accurately producing 11 predefined odor intensity levels over 10 different days. In User Study 1, we tested the reliability, usability, and subjective workload of the use of the device. Participants (N = 29) with a normal sense of smell performed an automated threshold test 4 times. The results showed that the correlations between the tests were statistically significant, r = 0.44 to 0.78, all P-values ≤0.018. In User Study 2, we demonstrated the functioning of the device with normosmic and hyposmic/anosmic participants (n = 23 and n = 27, respectively) who performed both the current clinical standard, Sniffin' Sticks test, and the AutomOT test. Also, the usability and subjective workload of the use of the device were evaluated. The overall correlation of olfactory thresholds between the Sniffin' Sticks and the AutomOT was r = 0.48, P < 0.001. In both user studies, the results indicated good usability as measured by the System Usability Scale and low workload assessed by NASA Task Load Index. Overall, the results suggest that the newly developed AutomOT test is a reliable, valid, and usable tool for clinical assessment of olfactory thresholds.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12370629/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144834253","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Clinical features of taste disorders in Cronkhite-Canada syndrome: a report of 10 cases.","authors":"Tomomi Nin, Koji Kamikozuru, Tetsuya Takagawa, Shinichiro Shinzaki, Kenzo Tsuzuki","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjae044","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjae044","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cronkhite-Canada syndrome (CCS) is a very rare gastrointestinal disorder with ectodermal abnormalities. Taste abnormalities appear in more than 80% of cases. Our objective was to investigate the characteristics of CCS. Ten patients with taste abnormalities who were diagnosed with CCS were included. A medical interview, examination of the tongue findings, and blood tests were performed, and taste functions were assessed using an electrogustometry (EGM) and a filter paper disc (FPD) before and after treatment. There was nail atrophy in all cases, weight loss in 8 cases, hair loss in 6 cases, skin hyperpigmentation in 5 cases, gastrointestinal symptoms in 4 cases, and atrophy of the lingual papillae in at least 8 cases. Zinc therapy for taste disorders by the previous physicians was ineffective in all cases. The results of the FPD at the first examination showed a severe decrease in taste function of the anterior tongue, whereas taste function tended to be preserved in the posterior tongue (P < 0.01, Wilcoxon). In all cases, subjective symptoms improved within 3 mo after treatment of CCS. Taste function improved significantly after treatment (FPD in anterior tongue, P < 0.05, EGM in posterior tongue, P < 0.01, Wilcoxon). Taste disorder in CCS tended to be severe in the anterior tongue with findings of tongue papillary atrophy, which appears to be an ectodermal abnormality. Their taste function improved along with symptoms after treatment. The taste tests were useful for determining the effect of treatment for CCS.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142853118","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Gustatory dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","authors":"Shahryar Rajai Firouzabadi, Ida Mohammadi, Mohammadreza Alinejadfard, Mohammad Yazdan Panah, Saeed Vaheb, Vahid Shaygannejad, Omid Mirmosayyeb","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjae046","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjae046","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Gustatory dysfunction is an often overlooked symptom in people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS), potentially leading to poor appetite, malnutrition, weight loss, and decreased quality of life. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the pooled prevalence of gustatory dysfunction in PwMS and compare their gustatory test scores with healthy controls. An online database search of PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted on 2024 June 29. Observational studies reporting gustatory dysfunction or gustatory test scores in PwMS were included. Pooled prevalence rates were calculated using a random-effects model, with subgroup analyses based on the type of gustatory test used. Standardized mean differences (SMD) were calculated for comparisons between PwMS and healthy controls. A total of 9 studies encompassing 1385 PwMS were included. The pooled prevalence of gustatory dysfunction among PwMS was 16.4% (95% confidence intervals [95% CI]: 8.7% to 24.1%, I² = 90%, P < 0.01). Subgroup analysis showed a prevalence of 18.8% (95% CI: 10.5% to 27.2%, I² = 0%) in 4 studies using the Taste Strip Test (TST), while 3 non-TST studies using liquid tastants or self-reports reported a prevalence of 20.2% (95% CI: 7.2% to 33.3%, I² = 86%). PwMS had significantly lower gustatory test scores compared to healthy controls (SMD: -0.93, 95% CI: -1.20 to -0.65, I² = 0%, P = 0.48). Gustatory dysfunction affects a notable proportion of PwMS, with prevalence rates varying by assessment method. Future studies should assess the possible causes of gustatory dysfunction in PwMS using validated gustatory assessment scales.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142913536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sensory responses of olfactory and vomeronasal neurons in does are influenced by buck odors and their reproductive status.","authors":"Maxime A Meunier, Elliott Trives, Emma Gerardin, Chantal Porte, Adrien Acquistapace, Philippe Chemineau, Pablo Chamero, Hélène Vacher, Matthieu Keller","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf012","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf012","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In mammals, olfactory communication between conspecifics is crucial in modulating reproductive function. In anestrous does (i.e. female goats), exposure to hair from sexually active bucks (SAB, i.e. male goats) triggers a luteinizing hormone response that may induce ovulation, the \"male effect.\" However, the chemicals in buck hair responsible for this effect and the sensory pathways used by the females to detect this information remain insufficiently understood. In this study, we investigated whether sensory cells from the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the vomeronasal organ (VNO) of does respond differently to olfactory stimuli from SAB versus wethers (CAS, i.e. castrated bucks) and how this response is influenced by the female reproductive status (breeding season, anestrous, or ovariectomized (OVX)). To explore this possibility, we stimulated freshly dissociated cells of MOE and VNO cells with chloroform/methanol and aqueous extractions from buck hair, and we assessed cell activation using calcium imaging. Regardless of the extraction method, we observed more cells activated by SAB hair compounds than by those from CAS males. More MOE cells from anestrous were activated by both chloroform and aqueous extracts from SAB than MOE cells from breeding season, or OVX does. Most of these responses originated from non-mature olfactory neurons. These findings suggest that females can discriminate buck sexual activity through sensory detection by the MOE and VNO. The increased response in the MOE to SAB hair compounds during the anestrous period suggests that the MOE may play a more significant role in the \"male effect\" during this period.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12163590/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143961347","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Innate liking and disgust reactions elicited by intraoral capsaicin in male mice.","authors":"Yibin Han, Daisuke H Tanaka, Naofumi Uesaka","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf006","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf006","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Liking and disgust are the primary positive and negative emotions, respectively, and are crucial for nutrient intake and toxin avoidance. These emotions are induced by multimodal stimuli, such as taste, olfactory, and somatosensory inputs, and their dysregulation is evident in various psychiatric disorders. To understand the biological basis of liking and disgust, it is crucial to establish an animal model that allows for quantitative estimation of liking and disgust in response to multimodal stimuli. The only readout shared by many species, including humans, for liking and disgust, has been taste reactivity. However, readouts of non-taste stimuli-induced emotions remain unestablished. Here, we show that intraoral administration of capsaicin, a chemosomatosensory stimulus, elicits orofacial and bodily reactions in male mice similar to those observed in taste reactivity. Capsaicin-induced liking reactions at low concentrations and disgust reactions at high concentrations. Capsaicin-induced disgust reactions consisted of various reactions, including gape and forelimb flail, with the proportion of each reaction among the disgust reactions being similar to that induced by bitter and sour stimuli. These findings indicate that orofacial and bodily reactions, defined as taste reactivity, are elicited not only by taste stimuli but also by intraoral chemosomatosensory stimuli. Understanding the biological basis of capsaicin-induced orofacial and bodily reactions will advance our understanding of the fundamental mechanisms underlying liking and disgust across sensory modalities.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143424466","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A cognitive nose? Evaluating working memory benchmarks in the olfactory domain.","authors":"Theresa L White, Nira Cedres, Jonas K Olofsson","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf008","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf008","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Working memory (WM) processes are assumed to operate on a wide variety of sensory materials, yet WM research rarely extends beyond sight and hearing. In this systematic review, we integrate research from studies that address WM in olfaction, the sense of smell, spanning the last 50 yr (N = 44). We assessed whether 21 proposed \"benchmarks\" for WM generalize to olfactory WM. Seven benchmarks generalized to olfaction, whereas 2 failed to generalize. Evidence was insufficient to address the remaining 12 benchmarks (4 had mixed support and 8 were yet unaddressed). We conclude that the available evidence indicates that the sense of smell has a short-term memory system that mostly resembles WM processes in \"higher\" senses, although there are exceptions related to how olfactory WM performance is associated with other functions. We argue that researchers studying WM should explicitly consider evidence outside of the audio-visual senses when establishing theoretical frameworks. Further, we point out avenues for future research that may help close the remaining gaps in knowledge on this neglected topic.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11985691/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143584864","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Paired and solitary ionocytes in the zebrafish olfactory epithelium.","authors":"Julia Peloggia, King Yee Cheung, Mariela D Petkova, Richard Schalek, Jonathan Boulanger-Weill, Yuelong Wu, Shuohong Wang, Nicholas J van Hateren, Michał Januszewski, Viren Jain, Jeff W Lichtman, Florian Engert, Tatjana Piotrowski, Tanya T Whitfield, Suresh Jesuthasan","doi":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf031","DOIUrl":"10.1093/chemse/bjaf031","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The sense of smell is generated by electrical currents that are influenced by the concentration of ions in olfactory sensory neurons and mucus. In contrast to the extensive morphological and molecular characterization of sensory neurons, there has been little description of the cells that control ion concentrations in the zebrafish olfactory system. Here, we report the molecular and ultrastructural characterization of zebrafish olfactory ionocytes. Transcriptome analysis suggests that the zebrafish olfactory epithelium contains at least three different ionocyte types, which resemble Na+/K+-ATPase-rich (NaR), H+-ATPase-rich (HR), and Na+/Cl- cotransporter (NCC) cells, responsible for calcium, pH, and chloride regulation, respectively, in the zebrafish skin. In the olfactory epithelium, NaR-like and HR-like ionocytes are usually adjacent to one another, whereas NCC-like cells are usually solitary. The distinct subtypes are differentially distributed: NaR-like/HR-like cell pairs are found broadly within the olfactory epithelium, whereas NCC-like cells reside within the peripheral non-sensory multiciliated cell zone. Comparison of gene expression and serial-section electron microscopy analysis indicates that the NaR-like cells wrap around the HR-like cells and are connected to them by shallow tight junctions. The development of olfactory ionocyte subtypes is also differentially regulated, as pharmacological Notch inhibition leads to a loss of NaR-like and HR-like cells, but does not affect NCC-like ionocyte number. These results provide a molecular and anatomical characterization of olfactory ionocytes in a stenohaline freshwater teleost. The paired ionocytes suggest that both transcellular and paracellular transport regulate ion concentrations in the olfactory epithelium, while the solitary ionocytes may enable independent regulation of ciliary beating.</p>","PeriodicalId":9771,"journal":{"name":"Chemical Senses","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12416361/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144844669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}