Atmospheric Research最新文献

{"title":"Contrasting char-EC and soot-EC in sources, atmospheric processing, and light-absorbing capabilities: Insights from high-resolution stable carbon isotope analysis","authors":"Mingyuan Yu ,&nbsp;Yu-Chi Lin ,&nbsp;Feng Xie ,&nbsp;Fang Cao ,&nbsp;Yan-Lin Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108275","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108275","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Char and soot represent distinct types of elemental carbon (EC) with varying sources and physicochemical properties. However, quantitative studies in sources, atmospheric processes and light-absorbing capabilities between them remain scarce, greatly limiting the understanding of EC's climatic and environmental impacts. For in-depth analysis, concentrations, mass absorption efficiency (MAE) and stable carbon isotope were analyzed based on hourly samples collected during winter 2021 in Nanjing, China. Combining measurements, atmospheric transport model and radiative transfer model were employed to quantify the discrepancies between char-EC and soot-EC. The mass concentration ratio of char-EC to soot-EC (R_C/S) was 1.4 ± 0.6 (mean ± standard deviation), showing significant dependence on both source types and atmospheric processes. Case studies revealed that lower R_C/S may indicate enhanced fossil fuel contributions, and/or considerable proportions from long-range transport. Char-EC exhibited a stronger light-absorbing capability than soot-EC, as MAE_char (7.8 ± 6.7 m²g⁻¹) was significantly higher than MAE_soot (5.4 ± 3.4 m²g⁻¹)(<em>p</em> &lt; 0.001). Notably, MAE_char was three times higher than MAE_soot in fossil fuel emissions, while both were comparable in biomass burning emissions. Furthermore, MAE_soot increased with aging processes, whereas MAE_char exhibited a more complex trend due to combined effects of changes in coatings and morphology. Simulations of direct radiative forcing (DRF) for five sites indicated that neglecting the char-EC/soot-EC differentiation could cause a 10 % underestimation of EC's DRF, which further limit accurate assessments of regional air pollution and climate effects. This study underscores the necessity for separate parameterization of two types of EC for pollution mitigation and climate change evaluation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108275"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144306719","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Daytime-like nighttime aerosol optical depth detection for geostationary environment monitoring spectrometer","authors":"Yerin Kim ,&nbsp;Jeong-Eun Park ,&nbsp;Goo Kim ,&nbsp;Sungwook Hong","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108290","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108290","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) is a critical parameter for understanding the Earth's atmospheric energy balance and addressing key health-related concerns. This study presents an innovative approach for simulating virtual nighttime AOD based on daytime observations from the Geostationary Environment Monitoring Spectrometer (GEMS) with ultraviolet and visible bands onboard the GEO-KOMPSAT (GK)-2B satellite. This study set the spatial domain to 20°N–43°N and 117°E–132°E, primarily to encompass South Korea and the Yellow Sea. By employing a deep learning-based data-to-data (D2D) translation technique, we trained and tested the D2D model to learn the GEMS AOD values from infrared (IR) bands at the Advanced Meteorological Imager (AMI) onboard the co-located GK-2A satellite. We used the paired daytime GEMS AOD datasets and ten IR brightness temperature (BT) and BT difference (BTD) measurements at the GK-2A AMI sensor. The trained D2D model was subsequently applied to nighttime AMI BT and BTD data to simulate daytime-like nighttime GEMS AOD values, assuming consistency in IR datasets without reliance on solar reflection. Our proposed nighttime AOD generation model was quantitatively evaluated using daytime GEMS AOD as a reference. The results showed excellent performance, with a probability of detection of 0.888, a false alarm ratio of 0.159, a critical success index of 0.760, a Heidke skill score of 0.778, and a proportion correct of 0.895 for the case on February 25, 2022, at 05:45 UTC (14:45 Korea Standard Time). Validation of the D2D-generated nighttime GEMS AOD data, using Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) aerosol layer and Vertical Feature Mask data, as well as Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) observations, demonstrated excellent agreement with CALIPSO aerosol data and closely matched AOD values from AERONET. This study provides a valuable contribution to continuous AOD monitoring, offering the ability to observe AOD both day and night at 10-min intervals over East Asia, supporting atmospheric and environmental forecasting efforts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108290"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144306718","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A performance-enhancement-oriented evaluation system to scrutinize the changes from IMERG V06 updated to V07 in capturing and presenting typhoon process","authors":"Fuwan Gan, Xinxiao Cai, Yang Gao, Xinsong Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108292","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108292","url":null,"abstract":"This study proposed a performance-enhancement-oriented evaluation system to inspect the performance of three integrated multi-satellite retrievals of global precipitation measurement (IMERG) products (early run (IMERG ER), late run (IMERG LR), and final run (IMERG FR)) during Typhoon In-Fa, the strongest typhoon on record to make landfall in mainland China in 2021. The new system for comparing hourly IMERG V07 and V06 products at one gauge and ranking all gauge stations in the gauge group is called the increment-ranking scoring index (ISI). The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Compared to IMERG V06, IMERG V07 demonstrates better typhoon precipitation detection capability and higher stability. Although the V07 has improved the problem of underestimating hourly rainfall events, the increasing number of precipitation overestimations across all gauges still raises concerns. (2) The gauge groups with high ISI values demonstrate satisfactory performance in satellite-derived precipitation estimates, while those characterized by high ΔKGE (delta Kling-Gupta Efficiency) values perform less satisfactorily. Higher ISI values (more significant enhancements by V07) are more commonly observed in the coastal region than in the inland region. By introducing the ISI for comprehensive performance evaluation of IMERG V07 and V06 during Typhoon In-Fa, a performance-enhancement-oriented evaluation system proposed in this study is intuitive and concise in revealing the advances of IMERG V07 when monitoring and reconstructing typhoon processes.","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"36 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144305067","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microphysics of warm season heavy precipitation in 2024 over China: A preliminary investigation based on FY-3G PMR observations","authors":"Long Wen ,&nbsp;Zhaoyang Fu ,&nbsp;Peiling Fu ,&nbsp;Jiming Sun ,&nbsp;Gang Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108293","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108293","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Spaceborne dual-frequency precipitation radar provides valuable insights into precipitation microphysics on a larger scale than ground-based sensors. In this study, the spatial distribution pattern of warm-season heavy precipitation microphysics in China is investigated using observations from China's first precipitation satellite, FY-3G PMR, from April to September 2024. Firstly, the quality of this new satellite dataset is evaluated by comparing it to ground-based polarimetric radar observations and retrievals. Subsequently, the spatial evolution of heavy precipitation microphysics is demonstrated in terms of the monsoon's advancement and the three-step topography across China, in association with the variation in raindrop size distribution (DSD) and the responsible microphysical processes. As the raindrop diameter increases and the number concentration decreases with increasing latitude, the maritime-DSD feature of the South China Sea, the monsoonal-DSD of South and Central-East China, and the continental-DSD of North China, are identified. Typically, the monsoonal-DSD, which is shaped by a predominant accretion process in the warm layer, is newly defined based on large-scale satellite observations. This study contributes to the advancement of our scientific knowledge regarding the spatial variability of precipitation microphysics in China, and will facilitate the scientific application of this novel satellite data in relevant fields.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108293"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Human influence on summer wetting in Northwest China from 1961 to 2014: Roles of greenhouse gases and anthropogenic aerosols","authors":"Rui He, Yan Guo, Buwen Dong, Neng Luo, Zihui Zhao, Zhibo Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108289","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108289","url":null,"abstract":"A significant increase in summer precipitation was observed in Northwest China (NWC) from 1961 to 2014, posing opportunities and challenges for the local ecosystem and human society. Using multi-model pre-industrial control simulations, and historical and single-forcing simulations from the state-of-the-art MIROC6 model, we attributed this wetting trend and explored the relative roles of individual external forcings. Our finding indicated that external forcing is the primary driver of this observed wetting, with anthropogenic forcing—dominated by greenhouse gases (GHG) and secondarily by anthropogenic aerosols (AA)—playing a significant role than natural forcing. Moisture budget analysis indicated that intensified moisture flux convergence, driven by circulation changes, is a key mechanism behind the NWC wetting in both GHG and AA simulations. Specifically, GHG forcing alters the Asian subtropical westerly jet (ASWJ), inducing a southward shift of the western branch and a weakening of the eastern branch. These changes correspond to an anomalous cyclone (anticyclone) in the west (east) of NWC, promoting moisture convergence over NWC of anomalous southwesterly and southeasterly winds. AA forcing weakens the ASWJ, producing a meridional dipole pattern of an anomalous anticyclone (cyclone) in the north (south), along with lower-level anomalous anticyclone over Mongolia and Northeast China. This circulation pattern facilitates moisture transport from the western North Pacific into inland NWC via anomalous easterlies and intensified moisture flux convergence.","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144305068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Interdecadal shift in North Indian Ocean-South China Sea influence on the evolution of the East Asian summer monsoon from July to August","authors":"Jiazhe Duan ,&nbsp;Hua Li ,&nbsp;Na Yang ,&nbsp;Yong Liu ,&nbsp;Huixin Li ,&nbsp;Yang Jiao ,&nbsp;Botao Zhou","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108294","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108294","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) shape China's summer climate. The transition from July to August marks a critical shift between the Meiyu season and the North/Northeast China rainy season, yet the underlying drivers of the inter-monthly evolution in precipitation during this period remains unclear. This study investigates the relationship between sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) in the northern Indian Ocean (NIO)-South China Sea (NIO-SCS) and the inter-monthly precipitation evolution in eastern China during July–August. A significant interdecadal shift in the relationship between the NIO-SCS SSTAs and eastern China's precipitation around 1995/96. Before 1995, warm NIO-SCS SSTAs consistently enhanced precipitation in the Huaihe-Yangtze River Basin (HYRB) throughout July and August, primarily altered by the Pacific-Japan (PJ) teleconnection pattern. However, after 1996, a distinct pattern emerged: warm NIO-SCS SSTAs increased precipitation over the HYRB and simultaneously reduced precipitation in North/Northeast China in July. In contrast, this pattern is reversed in August. Based on observations and numerical experiments, the interdecadal shift is linked to a weakening of Indian Ocean SSTAs after 1996 compared to before. During the post-1996, cooler Indian Ocean SSTAs in July weaken the Kelvin wave, shifting the PJ pattern westward and broadly influencing precipitation across eastern China. In August, the cooler Indian Ocean SSTAs induce westward-shifted Walker circulation anomalies, with a descending branch near the Philippine Sea extending to 30°N, leading to decreased precipitation in the HYRB and increased precipitation over North/Northeast China. Furthermore, the reduction in NIO-SCS SSTAs' amplitude after 1996 may be attributed to a weakened spring ENSO amplitude, potentially linked to the positive phase of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108294"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291362","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Improving aerosol retrieval from FY-3D/MERSI by parameterizing a binary quadratic spectral surface reflectance model with urban percentage and vegetation index","authors":"Weiqian Ji ,&nbsp;Leiku Yang ,&nbsp;Xin Pei ,&nbsp;Huan Liu ,&nbsp;Yidan Si ,&nbsp;Kaimin Sun ,&nbsp;Yizhe Fan ,&nbsp;Ping Zhang ,&nbsp;Xiaoqian Cheng ,&nbsp;Xiaofeng Lu","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108291","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108291","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Medium Resolution Spectral Imager (MERSI) Dark Target (DT) algorithm, adapted from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) DT algorithm, demonstrated aerosol retrieval performance similar to that of MODIS Collection 6.1 (C6.1) DT products. However, discrepancies arose in urban areas, where MERSI retrievals tended to exhibit noticeable positive biases, primarily due to the inadequate representation of urban surface reflectance. To address this issue, this study developed an enhanced algorithm by parameterizing a binary quadratic spectral surface reflectance model using urban percentage (UP) and vegetation index, named the MERSI DT_UP algorithm. Global validation against Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) measurements showed that MERSI DT_UP retrievals in 2019 exhibited greater accuracy than MERSI DT retrievals. The correlation coefficient between satellite retrievals and AERONET for MERSI DT_UP (<em>R</em> = 0.882) was higher than that for MERSI DT (<em>R</em> = 0.875), and the mean bias was reduced to −0.001 from 0.018. Additionally, the percentage of matchups falling within the expected error envelope (within EE%) of ± (0.05 + 0.2τ) increased by 1.5 %. Across different urbanization levels, MERSI DT_UP retrievals showed significant reductions in mean biases (ranging from 0.003 to 0.217) and notable increases in within EE% (ranging from 2.2 % to 49.3 %) compared to original results. Moreover, improvements were also observed on moderately vegetated and moderately bright surfaces, as demonstrated by the error dependence analysis. The proposed surface reflectance model supports the algorithm development for MERSI and holds potential for application to other sensors.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108291"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291363","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The potential relationship between urban background pollution and urban-rural differences of biomass burning aerosol radiative effects in the North China Plain","authors":"Zhigang Li ,&nbsp;Xin Yang ,&nbsp;Hong Tang ,&nbsp;Lu Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108287","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108287","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate quantitative assessment of biomass burning (BB) aerosol radiative effects (BBARE) in the North China Plain is a key scientific issue in regional aerosol radiative effects research. However, there is currently a lack of comparative analysis between BBARE based on observation and model simulations of BBARE, especially with regard to the differences between the two BBARE estimates in urban-rural differences. This study focuses on 10 typical BB events that affected Beijing during July, September and October 2014 in the North China Plain, and quantifies the BBARE at various radiation stations using both observational data-based machine learning approach and the WRF-Chem model. Based on the quantitative results, the BBARE obtained through the two methods was analysed in direct comparison and in terms of urban-rural differences. Direct comparison results indicate that the BBARE simulated by WRF-Chem shows an overall underestimation compared to the results based on observations. In terms of urban-rural differences in BBARE, observation-based BBARE was on average 91.28 % lower in urban stations than in rural stations, while model-simulated BBARE showed the opposite urban-rural difference (the urban stations' BBARE was on average 38.52 % higher than rural stations). This urban-rural difference in BBARE based on observations is due to the fact that urban SSR is more severely affected by background aerosols, resulting in limited changes in SSR caused by additional BB aerosols. However, the model simulation only considers the reduction in SSR caused by increased BB aerosols, neglecting the influence of pre-existing aerosol. By identifying these disparities, this study will help to enhance the accuracy of model simulations of BBARE.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108287"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291438","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rainfall seasonality changes and underlying climatic causes in global land monsoon regions","authors":"Shulin Deng ,&nbsp;Chunhua Lu ,&nbsp;Hao Chen ,&nbsp;Xuanhua Song ,&nbsp;Tan Chen ,&nbsp;Ni Yang ,&nbsp;Yanhong Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108288","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108288","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Changes in rainfall seasonality can have far-reaching impacts on the livelihood of population, agricultural production, and ecosystem sustainability. However, the changes in rainfall seasonality and associated climatic causes are largely unclear, especially in global land monsoon regions. Here, we analyzed the variations of rainfall seasonality during 1960–2022, and explored the possible effects of global climate teleconnections (CTs) on rainfall seasonality changes in global land monsoon regions using interpretable machine learning and multivariate wavelet coherency method. The results show that rainfall seasonality weakens significantly in northeastern South Asian, northeastern South American, and most parts of southern North African and South African monsoon regions, but enhances significantly in southern South Asian, northern North African, and southwestern South American monsoon regions. Rainfall seasonality also experiences an abrupt change in all hotspots during 1960–2022. We also find that many CTs are nonmonotonically related to rainfall seasonality in these hotspots, and the key CTs that explain the variations in rainfall seasonality differ across different hotspots using interpretable machine learning. The coupled influences of the key CTs on rainfall seasonality are also significant at certain scales during different periods in these hotspots. However, the key CTs have undergone changes, with stronger impacts on rainfall seasonality in almost all hotspots since 1990s. The findings of this study offer a robust scientific foundation that significantly contributes to enhancing agricultural productivity, fostering ecosystem sustainability, and promoting water resources management.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108288"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144272335","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of non-parametric method for evapotranspiration estimation across extreme conditions","authors":"Xinqu Wu ,&nbsp;Yuanbo Liu ,&nbsp;Rong Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108279","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.atmosres.2025.108279","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Terrestrial evapotranspiration (ET) estimation faces constraint due to complicate parameterization. The non-parametric (NP) method offers an efficient alternative, but its effectiveness across diverse environments, particularly under extreme conditions, is uncertain. This study leverages data from 131 global flux stations across various climate and landcover types to assess the NP method's accuracy, focusing on extreme scenarios spanning from dry to wet and from hot to cold. Our results indicate substantial variability, with absolute errors ranging from −41.7 to 26.8 W/m² and relative errors between 0.4 % and 98.1 %. The NP method tends to overestimate ET in hot, dry conditions, and underestimate in cold, wet conditions, with performance declining under extremes. Cold climates exhibit the largest biases, with particularly severe underestimation in extreme wet (−54.5 W/m²) and cold (−69.2 W/m²) conditions. Closed shrublands demonstrate the largest overestimation (73.2 W/m²) in extreme hot conditions. Across stations, three error patterns are observed: (i) overestimation in dry-hot regions caused by a high difference between equilibrium and actual ET, (ii) underestimation in humid regions resulting from a low difference, and (iii) underestimation in cold regions arising from large surface-air temperature gradients, causing an excessive integral term resulting in overcorrection. These errors could be amplified under extreme conditions, reducing model performance and highlighting the NP method's sensitivity to hydroclimatic extremes while offering insights for improving its accuracy and robustness.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":8600,"journal":{"name":"Atmospheric Research","volume":"326 ","pages":"Article 108279"},"PeriodicalIF":4.5,"publicationDate":"2025-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291375","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}