American Journal of Primatology最新文献

{"title":"Multimodal Learning Has an Impact on Conservation Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intentions Towards Spider Monkeys in Mayan Children From Punta Laguna, Yucatán","authors":"Miquel Llorente,&nbsp;Paula Villariezo,&nbsp;Federica Amici","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70076","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70076","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Conservation education activities employing multimodal knowledge transmission, including art-based workshops, are a multidisciplinary tool that can be used to raise awareness of the natural environment in which we live. In this study, we implemented a conservation education workshop that combined different forms of knowledge transmission, to promote pro-environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions towards spider monkeys and their ecosystem, among 5- to 16-year-old students in a rural school in a Mayan community in Mexico (<i>N</i> = 27). The aim of the study was to (i) develop and implement a workshop tailored to the cultural context of Maya children in México, incorporating artistic activities and multimodal learning approaches, and (ii) evaluate its effectiveness by monitoring changes in participants' knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral intentions towards spider monkeys and their ecosystem. Our findings indicate overall increases in conservation-oriented knowledge and behavioral intentions following the workshop, with more pronounced gains in knowledge among girls and in behavioral intentions among older children. Attitudes toward spider monkeys were already high before the intervention and showed a small but statistically significant increase afterward. Children's drawings reflected increased references to morphological and ecological traits, although aspects related to social behavior and human-monkey interactions were less represented. These outcomes suggest that short-term, culturally embedded and multimodal educational interventions may promote conservation learning in rural communities, though some effects may be constrained by ceiling effects and topic complexity. Future research should explore the durability of these changes over time, the specific drivers of pre-existing pro-environmental attitudes, and the impact of prior familiarity and cultural context on learning outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70076","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145062617","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Qualitative Aspects of Seed Dispersal Effectiveness by Mantled Howler Monkeys (Alouatta palliata mexicana): The Case of Three Species of the Moraceae Family","authors":"Daniela Alicia Torres-Anaya,&nbsp;Roger Guevara,&nbsp;Wesley Dáttilo,&nbsp;Laura Teresa Hernandez,&nbsp;Juan Carlos Serio-Silva","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70077","DOIUrl":"10.1002/ajp.70077","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Howler monkeys are considered high-quality seed dispersers; however, the changes that seeds undergo after passing through their digestive tract, which influence their germination capacity, are still unknown. In this study, we assessed whether the consumption of seeds from three species of the Moraceae family by mantled howler monkeys results in seed coat scarification, and whether this treatment enhances their permeability to water and germination rate. Using seeds from fruits, we induced chemical scarification of their outer coat, and with these, intact seeds and seeds found in droppings, we conducted micromorphological analyses, water permeability tests and germination assays. We observed that the passage of seeds through the digestive tract of mantled howler monkeys did not scarify their outer coat, nor did it enhance their water absorption capacity. There was both a positive and negative effect on the germination of <i>Ficus americana</i> and <i>Ficus insipida</i> seeds, respectively. Chemical scarification of the seeds, although it reduced their coat thickness, did not increase water permeability, significantly decreased their viability, and prevented germination. These results suggest that, in the case of small seeds, scarification is not a relevant treatment for germination and may, in fact, be unfavorable. Therefore, the importance of seed consumption by mantled howler monkeys, and other frugivores, may lie in the removal of pulp in terms of the facilitation of germination. Thus, by moving, releasing and cleaning the seeds, these animals may increase the probability that they will encounter adequate environmental conditions for germination and establishment.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145038931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vocal Repertoire of Free-Ranging Infant and Yearling Tibetan Macaques (Macaca thibetana)","authors":"Hong-Wei Tian,&nbsp;Xue Chen,&nbsp;Shen-Qi Liu,&nbsp;Shi-Wang Chen,&nbsp;Peng-Lai Fan,&nbsp;Dong-Po Xia","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70073","DOIUrl":"10.1002/ajp.70073","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Vocal signals are the primary means of communication for most nonhuman primates. Quantitatively describing the vocal repertoire of specific species at specific age stages is a crucial step in studying their vocal communication, and it also provides a foundation for understanding the development and use of primate vocal signals. This study is the first attempt to establish a vocal repertoire for wild infant Tibetan macaques based on quantitative methods. We conducted continuous 5-month tracking observations on 18 wild Tibetan macaques aged 0–24 months living in the Yulinkeng A1 group (YA1 group) of the Wild Monkey Valley in Huangshan, collecting a total of 6667 vocal samples and defining common vocalization contexts in 8 categories. Through the quantitative analysis of 41 main acoustic parameters in 557 high-quality samples, we ultimately identified 10 call types (coo, loud coo, modulated tonal scream, whistle, bark, three-syllable chuck, rattle, squeal, noisy scream, and undulated scream). Four call types (three-syllable chuck, squeal, noisy scream, and undulated scream) were no longer used as the monkeys reached 14 months of age. Compared with adult individuals, there are three specific call types in the infant stage (three-syllable chuck, rattle, and undulated scream). Additionally, the vocalizations we collected from infant and yearling monkeys were mainly related to their communication with their mothers. Our study fills a gap in knowledge of the vocal behaviors of Tibetan macaques, particularly those of infants, and provides foundational data for the study of vocal development in Tibetan macaques. It also offers new perspectives on the evolution of primate vocal communication.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145032648","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Absence of Blood Chimerism in Twin Goeldi's Monkeys (Callimico goeldii): Implications for Interpreting Callitrichid Phylogeny","authors":"Gustl Anzenberger,&nbsp;Mark Warneke,&nbsp;Esther N. Signer","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70071","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70071","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Goeldi's monkey (<i>Callimico goeldii</i>, the lone species in this genus) shows an array of characteristics that are typical for both New World primate families, the Cebidae and the Callitrichidae, and as such their taxonomic classification has remained in question. Based on DNA, the genus <i>Callimico</i> is regarded as a member of the monophyletic group of clawed New World monkeys (Callitrichidae). Callitrichids, as a rule, give birth to twins, which are blood chimeras due to placental blood vessel anastomoses. In contrast, wild and captive <i>Callimico</i> almost exclusively have singleton births, as in all cebids. To address whether <i>Callimico</i> shares chimeric twinning with other callitrichids, we did DNA profiling of the only presently available twin pair of captive <i>Callimico</i>. DNA banding patterns revealed distinct differences between the twins, indicating an absence of blood chimerism. We infer that predominantly single birth in <i>Callimico</i> most likely represents a derived state that evolved independently in this genus, rather than the ancestral callitrichid condition.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145012815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Slowly but Surely: Larger Brains Improve Immature Survival in Primates","authors":"Zitan Song,&nbsp;Carel P. van Schaik","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70072","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70072","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The high energy costs of brains suggest that a species' current brain size is adaptive. However, although the comparative data for mammals suggest a positive effect on fitness in larger-brained species because of higher adult survival and thus longer lifespan, it also reveals two negative effects, namely later age at first reproduction owing to slower development and a tendency towards reduced reproductive allocation owing to larger newborns. Here we suggest that what is missing is the positive impact of brain size on immature survival, causally linked to greater parental investment in larger-brained species. Using long-term demographic data on natural populations of 18 primate species, we find a strong positive brain size effect on immature survival, which is already apparent during the first year. We suggest this effect is caused by parental protection and provisioning, allowing young to survive better and mature slowly but surely. This survival effect may well be the strongest adaptive benefit of increased brain size. It remains unknown to what extent this effect generalizes to non-primates.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70072","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144918765","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Ontogeny of “Twitter” Calls in White-Faced Capuchins (Cebus imitator): Usage, Context, and Acoustic Structure","authors":"Nicole Guisneuf,&nbsp;Juan Carlos Ordoñez,&nbsp;Marcela E. Benítez,&nbsp;Thore J. Bergman","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70069","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70069","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In stark contrast to our own highly plastic communicative abilities, nonhuman primate vocalizations were historically considered fixed and innate, with very little ability to learn or modify vocal signals. However, recent studies indicate that primate vocalizations do show evidence of developmental plasticity, most notably in their context and usage. We build on these studies by investigating developmental changes in one of the most common calls of white-faced capuchins (<i>Cebus imitator</i>), the twitter. Specifically, we examined the behavioral context around twitter vocalizations in a wild population of white-faced capuchins in the Taboga Forest Reserve, Costa Rica. We analyzed the use of twitters in relation to behavioral state (social, foraging, travel, or resting), immediate context (approaching and leaving others), and specific social behaviors (grooming and aggression). Immatures (infants and juveniles) twitter primarily in a social state, while adults twitter primarily in a foraging state. The twitters produced by immatures were more closely associated with approaching other group members within 1 m, compared to adults. This contextual shift with development from social to foraging prompted us to also look for corresponding acoustic changes. However, the acoustic properties of twitters were not related to context or age, with the one exception that adult twitters were longer than those from immatures. Overall, our results suggest that the twitter is a call with multiple functions, with a shift in usage from social to foraging contexts across development. This adds to the growing evidence of flexibility and learning in primate vocal communication.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70069","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144897646","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Age-Related Changes in Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) Feeding Behavior and Physiology: Insights of Masticatory and Swallowing Functions","authors":"Max Sarmet,&nbsp;Sachiko Takehara,&nbsp;Priscila Sales de Campos,&nbsp;Kensuke Kagiyama,&nbsp;Yasuhiro Kumei,&nbsp;Christopher J. Mayerl,&nbsp;Laura Davison Mangilli,&nbsp;Jorge Luís Lopes Zeredo","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70070","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70070","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The common marmoset (<i>Callithrix jacchus</i>) is a valuable model for studying aging due to its physiological and social similarities to humans, including shared susceptibilities to age-related diseases. However, the effects of healthy aging on marmoset mastication and swallowing are poorly understood, despite their importance for modeling human aging and understanding marmoset ecology and longevity (efficient food processing impacts foraging success and predation risk). Given their specialized diet, dental adaptations, and relatively long lifespan compared with other biomedical models commonly used, like rodents, understanding how elderly marmosets maintain feeding efficiency is particularly important, yet lifespan research on their feeding physiology is scarce. Using cineradiography (with a microfocal X-ray source and beryllium image intensifier), we examined masticatory and swallowing physiology across the marmoset lifespan (1 month to 19 years) in 26 healthy individuals, analyzing 45 recordings (80 feeding events, 784 swallows). Our study revealed a developmental trajectory in marmoset chewing and swallowing, from infancy to old age, characterized by progressively refined handling of larger food portions and boluses. We identified distinct anatomical, functional, and behavioral differences in feeding physiology among age groups. Elderly marmosets exhibited significantly faster feeding rates than infants and adults, consuming larger portions and forming larger boluses, requiring fewer mastications and swallows, likely reflecting age-related adaptations. Notably, old and very old marmosets showed comparable feeding efficiency, suggesting compensatory mechanisms to maintain function despite age-related challenges (e.g., tooth loss or muscle weakness) and may contribute to longevity. The consistent pattern of esophageal retention across age groups indicates this pattern is likely typical for the species. This study establishes baseline feeding characteristics for marmosets, reinforcing their value as a translational aging model and enhancing their utility for investigating age-related changes in human chewing and swallowing, including dysphagia. Future research should explore the underlying mechanisms and functional implications of these changes.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70070","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144897665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing Gestation and Fetal Sex in Wild Assamese Macaques Using Urinary Estrogen Analysis","authors":"Verena Behringer,&nbsp;Suchinda Malaivijitnond,&nbsp;Suthirote Meesawat,&nbsp;Ruth Sonnweber,&nbsp;Michael Heistermann,&nbsp;Oliver Schülke,&nbsp;Julia Ostner","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70065","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70065","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In mammals, estrogens and progestogens are crucial for gestation, fetal development, and maternal preparation for parturition and lactation. Measuring these hormones allows for the diagnosis of pregnancy, estimation of pregnancy failures, and potentially prenatal sex determination. We evaluated urinary estrogen and progestogen metabolites as biomarkers for gestation detection and for their utility for fetal sex determination in wild Assamese macaques (<i>Macaca assamensis</i>) using 586 samples from 19 females, including 19 successful pregnancies. Four enzyme-immunoassays were tested for suitability in measuring urinary sex steroids using serial dilution: three assays targeting progestogen and one targeting estrogen metabolites (estrone conjugates, E1C). We performed a biological validation by measuring urinary hormone metabolites in one female across pre-, early-, late-, and post-gestation. None of the progestogen measurements reflected gestational status, while E1C levels showed the expected increases during gestation. Next, we measured urinary E1C across gestation in all females and investigated fetal sex effects on maternal E1C levels, expecting differences between females carrying male versus female fetuses. Urinary E1C levels increased as early as 9 days postconception and declined sharply at parturition, mirroring patterns in other primates. During late gestation, females carrying male fetuses had significantly higher E1C levels than those carrying female fetuses, yet overlapping values limit precision for prenatal sex determination. Urinary E1C offers a noninvasive marker for gestation monitoring in Assamese macaques, with application in ecological and conservation research. Additionally, results indicate intra- and inter-species-specific differences in steroid hormone metabolism and excretion, which need to be considered when selecting markers for reproductive monitoring.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70065","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144881263","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Validation of Body Condition Scoring as a Screening Test for Low Body Condition and Obesity in Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)","authors":"Juan Pablo Arroyo,&nbsp;Addaline Alvarez,&nbsp;Lori Alvarez,&nbsp;Alexana J. Hickmott,&nbsp;Aaryn C. Mustoe,&nbsp;Kathy Brasky,&nbsp;Kelly R. Reveles,&nbsp;Benjamin J. Ridenhour,&nbsp;Katherine R. Amato,&nbsp;Michael L. Power,&nbsp;Corinna N. Ross","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70068","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70068","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Assessing body weight is common practice for monitoring health in common marmosets (<i>Callithrix jacchus</i>). Body composition analysis via quantitative magnetic resonance (QMR) is a more in-depth assessment allowing measurements of lean and fat mass, but it is expensive and remains unavailable to most. Alternatively, body condition scoring (BCS) is an instrument-free method for visually inspecting and palpating lean and fat tissue. Animals are rated for lean and fat mass abundance, using an ordinal scale with species-specific descriptions as reference. However, modified BCS systems developed for other species are being used, because no BCS system has been fully validated for marmosets. The accuracy of BCS in identifying marmosets with poor body condition or obesity remains unknown. We assessed an adapted BCS for marmosets (<i>n</i> = 68, 2–16 years). Objectives were to (1) determine whether BCS predicts body weight and body composition, and (2) evaluate the performance of BCS as a screening test for low body condition and obesity in marmosets, in comparison to QMR body composition analysis. BCS predicted body weight and body composition (<i>F</i>(15, 166) = 7.51, Wilks' <i>Λ</i> = 0.240, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), and was better at predicting low lean mass and obesity, than at predicting low adiposity. Marmosets with low BCS had higher odds of low lean mass (<i>B</i> = 3.37, (95% CI, 0.95–5.78), OR = 29.0, <i>p</i> = 0.006). Marmosets with excessively high BCS had higher odds of obesity (<i>B</i> = 2.72, (95% CI, 1.07–4.38), OR = 15.23, <i>p</i> = 0.001). The accuracy rates of BCS in identifying low body condition (79.4%–91.2%) and obesity (77.9%) suggest that it can serve as an instrument-free screening method in marmosets.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70068","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144881264","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Present and Future: Using Ecological Niche Modeling to Understand the Conservation Status of Alouatta caraya (Primates, Atelidae) and Promote Its Protection","authors":"Jéssyca B. Schwantes,&nbsp;Lucas A. Antunes,&nbsp;Vanessa B. Fortes,&nbsp;Lizandra J. Robe","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70066","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70066","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Climate change is one of the main drivers of shifts in species distributions. Ecological niche models (ENMs) are valuable tools for assessing these effects and informing conservation efforts. This study employed ENMs to assess the impact of climate change on the present (from 1970 to 2000) and future (up to 2100) climate suitability patterns of the black-and-gold howler monkey (<i>Alouatta caraya</i> [<i>A. caraya</i>]), which is facing serious threats due to habitat changes and disease, especially in the southernmost part of its range. We also evaluated the effectiveness of current protected sites for the species' conservation in the future. For each 20-year interval, we used seven different algorithms and reconstructed a consensus map using ensemble techniques. We then reevaluated the geographical patterns of habitat suitability, accounting for dispersal restrictions and fragmentation history. Our results suggest that areas of high habitat suitability for <i>A. caraya</i> may be much smaller than the geographic distribution reported by the IUCN, with future projections predicting a continuous decrease in suitable areas from 2021 to 2100. Furthermore, most sites with high suitability for <i>A. caraya</i> are located outside protected areas, with &lt; 11% of its potential distribution range currently under protection. The extent of protected areas further drops by nearly 50% when only areas that remain suitable for <i>A. caraya</i> over the next 80 years (refuges) are considered. Moreover, areas with higher suitability indices are clustered within the Chaco and Pampa regions, which have been subjected to significant habitat conversion during the last 35 years. Therefore, climate change and habitat conversion pose a significant threat to <i>A. caraya</i>'s effective conservation, warranting a review of its conservation status.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-08-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70066","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144869511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}