American Journal of Primatology最新文献

{"title":"Cortisol and Catecholamine Concentrations Are Affected by Repeated Relocations of Adult Female Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta)","authors":"John P. Capitanio,&nbsp;Daniel J. Tancredi,&nbsp;Jasmin Zarrabi,&nbsp;Catherine VandeVoort,&nbsp;Cheryl K. Walker","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70050","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In captive primate facilities, relocations—moves, within the facility, from one cage to another—can be common events. On the one hand, relocations are generally regarded as relatively benign events, as past studies have generally shown only transient elevations in cortisol concentrations following relocation. On the other hand, the frequency of relocations has been associated with adverse health and behavioral outcomes. As part of a larger project examining the effects of stress on follicular development, we relocated adult female rhesus monkeys on a weekly basis for several months in each of 3 years, and measured concentrations of urinary cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, as well as hair cortisol. Results for urinary cortisol and epinephrine were similar: significant elevations immediately following initiation of relocations during Years 1 and 3, and reductions in concentrations by the end of the relocation sequences in Year 1. No changes were seen for these two measures in Year 2. In contrast, elevated norepinephrine concentrations were found for all 3 years. Significant elevations in hair cortisol concentrations were found for Years 2 and 3, and suggested persisting and cumulative effects of relocations on the hypothalamic−pituitary−adrenal axis. Together, these results suggest that relocations may not be the benign events suggested by earlier studies. Given that all organs of the body are innervated by the sympathetic nervous system (the principal source of norepinephrine in blood and urine) and that cells of the body have glucocorticoid and catecholamine receptors, our results suggest possible mechanisms by which repeated relocations may result in adverse health outcomes. Repeated relocations may be a valuable model for experimentally generating moderate stress; however, we encourage colony managers and scientists to minimize such events to enhance the welfare of the animals.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70050","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144171825","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Physiologic Consequences of Housing Adult Male Cynomolgus Monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) in Heterosexual Pairs: A Pilot Study Using Implanted Biotelemetry","authors":"Rosemary Santos,&nbsp;Dong-Binh Tran,&nbsp;Dingzhou Li,&nbsp;Peter Harris,&nbsp;Jan Bernal,&nbsp;Steven Kreuser,&nbsp;Erin Ricciardi,&nbsp;Siri Skowronek,&nbsp;Kiran Palyada,&nbsp;John P. Capitanio","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70052","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70052","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Facilities may forgo attempting to socially house adult males due to fear of animal injury, study disruptions, and confounding data results. To leverage the potential advantages of male–female pairs, and to understand the impact on measures typically used in safety pharmacology studies, we measured activity as well as physiologic parameters in vasectomized male-female pairs: heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. Seven singly housed males that were previously implanted with telemetry were vasectomized and paired with females. Data were collected before and after pairing at specific timepoints in the first study. A second study employed four nonvasectomized, singly housed males to determine if the physiologic effects observed in the first study could be due simply to the increased cage size due to pairing. Results indicated that pair-housing with a female resulted immediately in a significant increase in blood pressure, body temperature, and heart rate. Over the course of a week of being paired, the males showed a significant decline in blood pressure; body temperature remained elevated, though at a lower level than during the immediate response. The second study suggested that increased cage size alone could not account for the immediate results in Experiment 1, inasmuch as no effects were found on our measures. Although the sample sizes for the studies were small, we discuss how our results are similar to, and differ from, previous studies, as well as the clinical significance and welfare implications. This information may be useful in designing long-term studies using sexually mature males while providing stable social support to animals.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144171824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Inertia and Rapid Divergence in the Evolution of Yawning: A Comparison Between Two Closely Related but Socially Different Monkeys","authors":"Luca Pedruzzi,&nbsp;Veronica Maglieri,&nbsp;Paolo Oliveri,&nbsp;Martina Francesconi,&nbsp;Rea Riccobono,&nbsp;Filippo Bigozzi,&nbsp;Alban Lemasson,&nbsp;Elisabetta Palagi","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70049","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70049","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Complex communication systems appear to evolve alongside social complexity. Comparing closely related species with similar social structures but distinct sociobiology offers valuable insights into the evolution of communicative variability. Here, we explore yawning (morphology, sensory modalities, contexts, contagious effect), a highly conserved behavioral trait, in two zoo-housed groups of geladas (<i>Theropithecus gelada</i>, <i>n</i>_subjects = 67, <i>n</i>_yawns = 1422) and hamadryas baboons (<i>Papio hamadryas</i>, <i>n</i>_subjects = 28, <i>n</i>_yawns = 602). The species are optimal candidates as they both form multilevel groups but differ in intra-group dynamics, cohesion, and cross-sex bonding. Although both species displayed distinct yawn morphologies, hamadryas yawned less frequently than geladas, mainly in non-social contexts and without vocalization. In contrast, geladas yawned more often during affiliative interactions, highlighting a more social dimension to their yawns. When focusing on silent yawns, hamadryas showed a male-biased yawning frequency, whereas geladas exhibited similar rates between sexes, suggesting a more prominent female role in their yawning patterns. We found that yawning is contagious not only in geladas, as previously known, but also in hamadryas baboons. However, geladas were more responsive to others' yawns, possibly due to their greater communicative complexity or to the need to maintain cohesion in larger groups. In geladas, both sexes exhibited similar levels of yawn contagion, whereas in hamadryas it was predominantly male-driven, reflecting the central role of males in hamadryas social dynamics. Our study suggests both evolutionary inertia and divergence in Papionine yawning evolution. The findings confirm the derived nature of gelada yawn vocalizations and highlight the link between multimodal communication and social complexity. Moreover, geladas exhibit more nuanced, context-dependent yawning, likely shaped by their intricate sociobiology. In contrast, hamadryas display a more male-dominated yawning pattern, reflecting their distinct social dynamics. To fully understand the ecological significance of this ancient behavior, further cross-species research on yawning and its contagious effect in wild populations is essential.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70049","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144171821","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Polyadic Grooming Patterns and Network in a Free-Ranging Group of Japanese Macaques at Awajishima","authors":"Yu Kaigaishi,&nbsp;Masayuki Nakamichi,&nbsp;Kazunori Yamada","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70054","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Grooming is the most common affiliative behavior in many primate species. While traditionally viewed as an exclusively dyadic interaction, polyadic grooming involving more than two individuals also occurs. Few studies have explored the characteristics or functions of polyadic grooming in comparison with dyadic grooming. However, some studies suggest that polyadic grooming may have distinct characteristics and could be associated with social tolerance. We analyzed polyadic grooming patterns and its network structure in a free-ranging group of Japanese macaques at Awajishima, Japan. This group exhibited higher social tolerance than typical Japanese macaque groups. We found that polyadic grooming was common in this group, with higher frequency than other Japanese macaque groups as well as other primate species except chimpanzees. We also found that polyadic grooming typically occurred with multiple groomers sharing a single groomee, a pattern commonly observed across most primate species. Social network analyses showed that the polyadic grooming network was centralized around high-ranking males, reflecting the frequent grooming from multiple females to a single adult male. In addition, the network of polyadic grooming was less dense and more cliquish than that of dyadic grooming. This potentially suggested that polyadic grooming was more strongly kin-biased than dyadic grooming. Our results support the prediction that polyadic grooming may be associated with higher levels of social tolerance. Moreover, polyadic grooming may function to access valuable social partners more efficiently than dyadic grooming.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144171823","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Collective Acoustics in Pan: Conserved Roots in the Evolution of Human Musicality","authors":"James Brooks,&nbsp;Zanna Clay,&nbsp;Valérie Dufour,&nbsp;Pawel Fedurek,&nbsp;Cédric Girard-Buttoz,&nbsp;Shinya Yamamoto","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70048","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The evolution of human musicality has attracted immense and intense cross-disciplinary research attention. However, despite widespread interest, there has been surprisingly little explicit focus on the conserved roots and evolutionary precursors of musicality in our closest relatives, chimpanzees (<i>Pan troglodytes</i>) and bonobos (<i>P. paniscus</i>). We here aim to evaluate the extant literature on chimpanzees and bonobos in behavioral contexts relevant to evolutionary theories of musicality, especially simultaneous production of acoustics signals by multiple individuals (“collective acoustics”). We illustrate the importance of this literature by evaluating and comparing a pair of recent, influential, and competing theories on the evolution of human musicality (music for social bonding and music for credible signaling) in light of the reviewed empirical evidence. We conclude by highlighting core remaining questions for future empirical studies on great ape collective acoustics that may have a critical influence on our understanding of the evolution of human musicality.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144148644","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating Changes in Social Networks Following Conflict in Zoo-Housed Bonobos (Pan paniscus)","authors":"Sedona Epstein,&nbsp;Mariam Fischer,&nbsp;Sara Cotton,&nbsp;Frances White","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70047","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Bonobos (<i>Pan paniscus</i>) are successful at managing conflict and promoting group affiliation, but it is still uncertain how conflict affects the entire social group, particularly in captive populations. We conducted social network analyses using dyadic proximity data to understand the structure of five alternating social group compositions of a population of zoo-housed bonobos, using measures of centrality and social strength. We then compared social network measures between neutral, post-conflict (intergroup and intragroup), and post-single-party outburst (scream, display to the public) contexts to determine how conflict influences social behavior within the entire social network. We found that, across conflict contexts, dominant females have higher social group centralities than other individuals. Dominant females also received social initiations at a higher rate than others, suggesting this centrality is structurally maintained by other individuals. Further, rates of proximity are significantly higher following single-party outbursts than in other contexts, which indicates an important social distinction between this context and others and may be best explained by considering these outbursts as signals of group-level social tension, during which group members may seek social interaction and reassurance. Consistent differences in proximity rates were observed between dominant females and other group members, indicating that the social role of the dominant female in a bonobo social group across conflict contexts is different from that of other bonobos. The results of this study emphasize the flexible nature of bonobo sociality, highlight the distinct and important role of dominant females within the social network, and present social network analysis as a useful methodological tool for studying group-level changes in bonobo sociality and behavior.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70047","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144135695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Population Genetic Structure of Azara's Owl Monkey (Aotus azarae) From Northern Argentina: Insights Into Gene Flow and Dispersal Patterns in a Pair-Living Primate","authors":"Margaret Corley,&nbsp;Katherine Burchfield,&nbsp;Nicole Fusco,&nbsp;Eduardo Fernandez-Duque,&nbsp;Adalgisa Caccone","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70045","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70045","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Characterizing patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow is crucial for understanding the movements of dispersing individuals, and for assessing population viability and informing conservation strategies. The South American Gran Chaco is one of the most threatened ecosystems in the Americas. Yet critical data on the population genetic structure for many mammals occupying this ecoregion, including primates such as Azara's owl monkey (<i>Aotus azarae</i>), are lacking. We used 22 microsatellite loci and mitochondrial DNA sequences to assess genetic diversity and population structure in <i>A. azarae</i>, an arboreal, pair-living platyrrhine primate, in the Gran Chaco of northern Argentina in areas characterized by a contiguous gallery forest and patches of forest in naturally occurring savanna. We also analyzed sex-specific patterns of isolation-by-distance and used assignment tests to evaluate dispersal patterns, assess potential sex differences in gene flow, and assessed potential differences in gene flow within and between gallery forest and forest patch habitats. We found limited genetic structure within sampling locations, and a moderate level of genetic differentiation between the two most-distant regions. There was no evidence of genetic differentiation between habitat types (gallery vs. forest patches). Some analyses suggest greater dispersal by females than males, although the evidence is not strong. We integrated these results with previous demographic and behavioral observations gathered since 1996 as part of a long-term study of owl monkeys in this area. This study constitutes an important first step in characterizing the genetic structure and patterns of gene flow for Azara's owl monkey populations in Argentina, which is essential for combatting the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on these native populations and for informing conservation management strategies for pair-living primates throughout the South American Gran Chaco.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144118105","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Variation in Maternal Effort, Activity Budgets, and Feeding Behavior in Wild Saddleback Tamarins (Leontocebus weddelli) in Northwestern Bolivia","authors":"Wendy M. Erb,&nbsp;Leila M. Porter,&nbsp;Rachel Voyt,&nbsp;Lucero Hernani-Lineros,&nbsp;Anthony Di Fiore","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70044","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70044","url":null,"abstract":"<p>El cuidado materno de los infantes en primates varía según varios factores, como el tamaño de la camada y la historia reproductiva y de salud de la madre. En especies con crianza cooperativa, la inversión materna también depende de la ayuda proporcionada por los compañeros de grupo. En este estudio, examinamos el cuidado materno en cuatro grupos silvestres de tamarinos lomo de silla (<i>Leontocebus weddelli</i>), recolectando muestras de pelo y heces de las que extraímos ADN para estimar las relaciones de parentesco entre los miembros del grupo. Usamos estos datos para analizar si el cuidado materno se ve influenciado por siete factores: a) tamaño del grupo de adultos; b) número de machos adultos; c) presencia de padres genéticamente identificados; d) número de parientes cercanos no parentales; e) número de infantes; f) peso corporal materno; y g) paridad materna. Para investigar cómo las madres manejan los costos reproductivos, comparamos sus tasas de descanso y alimentación con las de otros adultos durante las 15 semanas previas y posteriores al parto. En general, observamos que las madres contribuyen con un 16% al transporte de infantes y un 30% a la provisión de alimentos por grupo cada semana. Sin embargo, no encontramos efectos significativos de ninguna de las variables en la proporción de tiempo dedicado al transporte o provisión de alimentos. También notamos que las madres descansan menos que otros miembros del grupo durante los períodos pre y post parto. Nuestros resultados muestran que las madres participan en niveles bajos de cuidado infantil en comparación con especies sin crianza cooperativa, pero no pudimos identificar una explicación clara para la variación en el cuidado materno entre individuos.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144118104","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Earliest Known Radiation of Pitheciine Primates","authors":"Nelson M. Novo,&nbsp;Gabriel M. Martin,&nbsp;Laureano R. González Ruiz,&nbsp;Marcelo F. Tejedor","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70040","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70040","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Two of the more interesting and controversial platyrrhine primate taxa from the Miocene of Patagonia are <i>Soriacebus</i> and <i>Mazzonicebus</i>. Although they are known basically from isolated teeth and partial mandibles and maxillae, their morphology is highly distinctive. Opinions about their phylogenetic relationships differ widely. We interpret these fossils as belonging to the lineage of the anatomically derived, living pitheciine seed-predators; others hold the view that they are stem platyrrhines with convergent adaptations with pitheciines (with the single exception of <i>Proteropithecia</i> among the Patagonian forms), somewhat distant relatives converging coincidently with pitheciines. Here we tested these hypotheses in two ways: (1) by summarizing a character analysis of taxonomically informative traits; (2) we implemented “blind” parsimony analyses using the software package TNT, including a combined matrix of both morphological and molecular data, and replication studies of other matrices. We make some criticisms on the applied methodology of Parsimony in our analysis. <i>Soriacebus</i> and <i>Mazzonicebus</i> resulted sister-taxa nested deeply within the pitheciid clade; thus, and according to our inferences, they are not stem platyrrhines. Most of the differences separating them from the younger and uniformly recognized pitheciine fossils <i>Proteropithecia</i>, <i>Nuciruptor</i> and <i>Cebupithecia</i> are explained as being of more primitive character states; the vast majority of resemblances and their broader functional patterns are definitively pitheciine, as typified by the living pitheciines (sakis and uakaris). We therefore found that none of the Miocene Patagonian genera treated here can be reliably interpreted as stem platyrrhines. Rather, they tend to ratify the Long Lineage Hypothesis.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70040","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144074512","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Urinary Estradiol in Captive Bonobos: Variation With Reproductive State and Sexual Swelling","authors":"Sara Cotton,&nbsp;Klaree Boose,&nbsp;Sedona Espstein,&nbsp;Audra Meinelt,&nbsp;Josh Snodgrass,&nbsp;Frances White","doi":"10.1002/ajp.70041","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.70041","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Estradiol is known to have a variety of biological and behavioral effects, but monitoring its function is complex given the many factors influencing its variation. This necessitates large sample sizes which are challenging in captive and wild situations. This study validates the use of opportunistically collected urinary estradiol levels (E2) for use in reproductive monitoring and behavioral research in bonobos (<i>Pan paniscus</i>). We analyzed frozen urine samples from four Columbus Zoo adult females over 4 years for estradiol and creatinine concentrations (<i>n</i> = 117). While E2 was significantly higher in pregnant versus nonpregnant females (F = 66.30, <i>df</i> = 1, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001) it was not significantly different between lactating and regularly cycling females (F = 0.40, <i>df</i> = 1, <i>p</i> = 0.5304). Among the regularly cycling females, there was a significant positive regression between E2 and sexual swelling size (F = 4.43, df = 1, 81, <i>p</i> = 0.0384). No differences in E2 variation were detected between individuals in this study. Specifically, when the amount of variation in estradiol due to sexual swelling was statistically controlled for, there was no significant effect of age (<i>n</i> = 83, r = 0.08059, <i>p</i> = 0.4689) or rank (<i>n</i> = 83, r = 0.1361, <i>p</i> = 0.22) on estradiol variation. Overall, these findings indicate that opportunistically sampled urinary estradiol can be paired with visual observation to help detect changes in reproductive status. The shift from lactational amenorrhea back to estrogen cycling may be less clearly defined than expected, and uneven sampling may exacerbate difficulty in detecting some of the more subtle shifts in estradiol levels. While it is known that extended maximal tumescence in bonobos may function to obscure the exact date of ovulation, we did confirm that ratings of visual tumescence still provide useful information regarding relative estradiol levels. By publishing more methodologies and results of this kind, we hope to promote the continued study of estradiol in bonobos as it is relevant to both health monitoring and behavioral research goals.</p>","PeriodicalId":7662,"journal":{"name":"American Journal of Primatology","volume":"87 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajp.70041","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143944590","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}