Biological Conservation最新文献

{"title":"Post-release survival of marine gastropods: A review","authors":"Kathy Overton ,&nbsp;Tim Dempster ,&nbsp;Stephen E. Swearer ,&nbsp;Luke T. Barrett","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111153","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111153","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Marine gastropods support important artisanal, cultural, and commercial fisheries. However, overexploitation of abalone, conch, topshell, and limpets has resulted in population declines globally, with numerous species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Various efforts to supplement existing populations by either translocating wild or releasing hatchery-produced stock have suffered from low survival. To understand predictors influencing post-release survival, we conducted a systematic review and quantitative synthesis of literature on marine gastropod releases. Our global review identified 88 studies (575 unique release events) across 18 species. A similar number of releases were conducted in tropical (52 %) and temperate (48 %) regions, although most release events involved either Haliotidae (57 %) or Strombidae (26 %). Most releases used hatchery-produced stock (77 %), highlighting the prominent role of aquaculture. For seven species with sufficient data, we tested the effect of time since release, stock origin (hatchery, translocated), size at release, and density on post-release apparent survival (referred to as ‘survival’ hereafter), where applicable. Survival declined through time regardless of species. Hatchery-produced and translocated <em>Haliotis fulgens</em> had similar survival post-release, but hatchery-produced <em>Aliger gigas</em> had lower survival probability than translocated stock. Size at release increased survival probability for only two (<em>Haliotis discus</em> and <em>A. gigas)</em> of the seven species. Similarly, density had no effect on the post-release survival of <em>Haliotis rubra, Haliotis rufescens</em>, and <em>A. gigas</em>. Overall, we found low long-term predicted survival across the seven species. Our findings highlight that overcoming low post-release survival is a significant hurdle when rehabilitating depleted stocks of marine gastropods.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111153"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143808629","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Altitudinal distributions of endangered butterflies in the Austrian Alps","authors":"Werner Ulrich ,&nbsp;Patrick Gros ,&nbsp;Thomas Schmitt ,&nbsp;Jan Christian Habel","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111129","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111129","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In Alpine regions, biodiversity loss is more pronounced in lowland areas intensively used by humans. At higher altitude, topography hardly allows for large-scale agricultural intensification and settlement as observed for the lowland areas. Based on long-term observations of butterflies across Northern Austria, we investigate the degree and trends of endangerment of butterflies, depending on altitude. Our results show that many endangered butterfly species occur mainly at lower altitudes where ongoing habitat loss contributes to their decline. Species relying on oligotrophic grasslands and on wetlands are at particular risk. Butterfly species mainly occurring all over the altitudinal gradient or exclusively at higher altitudes are on average less endangered. The lowland–mountain discrepancy in the proportion of endangered species has increased over the last 30 years. Climate change augments this tendency because common species might keep their thermal niches by altitudinal range expansion while endangered specialists might not find appropriate habitats at higher altitude. The establishing of appropriate lowland nature reserves might counteract these trends.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111129"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143799075","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Smart landscape diversification? Farmers' perspectives on how digital tools can facilitate (collective) agri-environmental action in Brandenburg, Germany","authors":"Margarethe Reichenspurner ,&nbsp;Bettina Matzdorf","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111108","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111108","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Landscape-level diversification in the form of agri-environment-climate measures (AECM) is needed to promote biodiversity and ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes. Effective implementation requires coordination between farmers and other actors. The (collective) implementation of AECM may be facilitated by digital technologies. As the implementation of AECM and the use of digital tools are voluntary, understanding farmers' perspectives is crucial to foster adoption. The results of this Q study with farmers in Brandenburg, Germany, reveal three distinct perspectives on the use of digital applications which could facilitate (collective) AECM: one focusing on the associated benefits, one questioning the meaningfulness of such approaches and one strongly valuing personal exchanges. While all viewpoints are open to the use of digital applications if they provide clear added value, farmers doubt the reliability of more advanced technologies. The different viewpoints highlight the importance of attitudes and subjective perceptions, which vary regardless of farm and farmer characteristics. For the successful development and diffusion of digital innovations and to steer the transition towards a digitally supported implementation of collective AECM, it is crucial to build institutional trust by providing planning security and ensuring the usefulness and viability of new approaches. In general, digital technologies may support the implementation of collective AECM directly through tailored applications or indirectly by increasing farmers' capacity to adapt to changes. They should promote rather than replace in-person exchanges. Finally, results highlight that digital applications will not solve existing flaws of the current AECM system, but future improvements may be supported by digital technologies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111108"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143808628","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How much more carbon could be protected in mature and old-growth forests of the United States?","authors":"Richard A. Birdsey ,&nbsp;Dominick A. DellaSala ,&nbsp;Wayne Walker ,&nbsp;Seth Gorelik","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111114","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111114","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mature and old-growth (MOG) forests are superior to younger forests for mitigating the climate and biodiversity crises. MOG forests store far more carbon per hectare than younger forests, and continue to accumulate carbon for centuries if not logged or severely disturbed. However, forest and climate policies have not fully protected older forests and large trees for these benefits despite public concerns. Here, we document our novel approach to link remote sensing of MOG structural stages with the USDA Forest Service's Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data to estimate forest area and carbon stocks by conterminous U.S. regions, landowner class, protection status, and maturity class. We found the greatest stock of carbon and area in mature forests (31.5B Mg, 156.5 M ha), followed by young forests (12.8B Mg, 71.9 M ha), and old-growth forests (7.9B Mg C, 35.3 M ha). Old-growth forests had the greatest carbon density (224 MgC ha⁻¹), followed by mature (201 MgC ha⁻¹), and young (178 MgC ha⁻¹). Only about 18 % of the current stock of carbon in MOG forests is protected from logging. Protecting MOG from commercial timber harvest, while allowing mature forests to grow into old-growth forests, could increase accumulated forest carbon stocks by 10.8B Mg this century, comparable to 8 years of fossil fuel emissions in the United States. Stricter prohibitions from logging on Inventoried Roadless Areas of National Forests would account for 2.9B MgC increase. Avoiding logging of old-growth forests and large trees in mature forests would protect and increase this valuable carbon stock that cannot be replaced in the near term.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111114"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143808627","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Combining distance sampling and triangulation to estimate density of elusive rainforest vertebrates","authors":"Jörn Theuerkauf ,&nbsp;Henri Bloc ,&nbsp;Alfredo Attisano ,&nbsp;Roman Gula ,&nbsp;Hervé Jourdan ,&nbsp;Juan F. Masello","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111133","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111133","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Knowledge of the density of endangered or game species is important for conservation and management. Distance sampling and triangulation have been used in acoustic population estimates of primates and birds. We tested a novel combination of these two methodologies to obtain a reliable density estimation of the New Caledonian imperial-pigeon <em>Ducula goliath</em>, which is both a traditional game and an emblematic endemic near-threatened species. We conducted 100 acoustic point counts in the <em>Parc Provincial des Grandes Fougères</em> (45 km²) on mainland New Caledonia during which two observers simultaneously located calling imperial-pigeons by taking bearings during a 5-min interval. We then used the locations obtained by triangulation for density estimation by distance sampling. At the same time, we assessed the proportion of imperial-pigeons that called during the sampling interval. This allowed us to obtain a corrected population density estimate that included the entire population and not just the calling birds. The number of imperial-pigeons heard per listening point varied with time of day and between observers. In contrast, distance sampling combined with triangulation provided similar estimates for the two observers. During the dry season, with a proportion of calling individuals of 60 %, the method estimated a corrected density of 35 imperial-pigeons/km² (24–50 CI) and a population size of 1502 (1044–2159). We developed a cheap and simple method to provide reliable density estimates of a wide range of species employing their vocalisations in tropical forests and that can be used by scientists and well-trained field workers alike.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143799076","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Expanding a network of marine protected areas based on functional rather than structural connectivity is more profitable","authors":"Sylvain Blouet ,&nbsp;Thibaud Tournadre ,&nbsp;Skandar Hentati ,&nbsp;Katell Guizien","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111112","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111112","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>One strategy to boost population resilience and stop the long-term loss of ocean biodiversity is to establish networks of interconnected, highly protected areas. In this study, we assess the relationship between profitability and adequacy brought about by structural and functional connectivity in systematic conservation planning (SCP). Twelve sets of conservation plans were explored to protect the hard bottom habitat of the Gulf of Lion (NW Med Sea), varying conservation objectives (10 % and 30 % of the surface area), human activity pressures (including or ignoring existing highly protected areas) and connectivity types: (i) structural connectivity (ii) early summer and (iii) late summer connectivity arising from a week-long larval dispersal. These connectivity are likely estimates of the functional connectivity of gorgonians. Conservation plan profitability - which was defined as the ratio of the population part under protection to protection cost - was assessed using observations of the spatial distribution (that were not used in the SCP) of five gorgonian species <em>Eunicella singularis, Leptogorgia sarmentosa, Eunicella cavolinii, Paramuricea clavata and Corallium rubrum</em>. When functional connectivity replaced structural connectivity, the spatial distribution of highly protected areas was altered, systematically targeting the center of the Gulf of Lion whatever the conservation objective. Profitability drastically increased with functional compared to structural connectivity for four of the five species in the 10 % conservation objective. Including existing highly protected areas also improved profitability but differently according to the species in 10 and 30 % objective. No plan was profitable for <em>P. clavata</em>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111112"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143792144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Two decades of no-take zones enhance lobster (Jasus edwardsii) abundance and size within marine protected areas in southeastern Australia","authors":"Mary Young ,&nbsp;Michael Sams ,&nbsp;Oli Dalby ,&nbsp;Todd Doran ,&nbsp;Harry Simmons ,&nbsp;Daniel Ierodiaconou","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111154","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111154","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a proven strategy for managing various stressors affecting marine ecosystems. No-take MPAs safeguard targeted species from fishing pressures, often enhancing their density, size, and biomass. Benthic species with high site fidelity, such as lobsters, have shown to benefit from such protections worldwide. This study examined the effects of MPAs on lobsters (<em>Jasus edwardsii</em>) within a southeastern Australian MPA network. From 2013 to 2023, we conducted fishery-independent sampling using 1065 baited pots (555 inside MPAs, 510 outside), sampling over 2000 lobsters. More and larger lobsters were caught per pot inside the MPAs (3.05 individuals/pot, 127 mm average length/pot) compared to outside (1.4 individuals/pot, 121 mm average length/pot). To assess MPA effects while accounting for habitat and environmental variability, we applied species distribution models by associating several response variables with seafloor structure (e.g., depth, seafloor complexity), oceanographic (e.g., temperature, wave energy), and protection/context (e.g., status, fishing region, MPA zone) factors. These models explained between 18 % and 75 % of the variability in the response variables with predictive accuracy ranging from 45 % to 86 %. <em>Jasus edwardsii</em> counts, sizes, and biomass – both overall and by sex – responded positively to MPA protection despite regional and environmental variability. Other than protection status, depth, fishing region, and MPA zone were consistently important across most models with the remaining variables showing varying influence. These findings highlight MPAs' dual role in conserving biodiversity and potentially supplementing local fisheries, with benefits that likely extend beyond their boundaries.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111154"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143792142","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Underwater soundscape analysis reveals fish assemblage contrasts between protected and exploited areas in an African mangrove delta","authors":"Timothée Brochier ,&nbsp;Oumar Sadio ,&nbsp;Mamadou Diop ,&nbsp;Frédéric Bertucci ,&nbsp;Caouis Kammegne ,&nbsp;Théophile Bayet ,&nbsp;Balbine Olive MBoua Etoga ,&nbsp;Hoover Esteban Pantoja Sanchez ,&nbsp;Alassane Bah ,&nbsp;Yann Tremblay","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111051","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111051","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mangrove estuaries are keystone habitats for many marine species, but their contribution to the tropical coastal fisheries is threatened by increasing anthropogenic pressures, including overfishing. Thus, the implementation of marine protected areas in mangroves is motivated by the need to ensure the fishing community's food security and economic livelihood, but there is a lack of affordable methods to monitor the effect of this management on fish. Here, we explored how passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) could be utilized in a case study of the Sine-Saloum estuary, Senegal. We compared biodiversity indices based on PAM and scientific fishing in two contrasted areas, one being heavily fished and the other protected. We computed fish sound abundance, richness, and diversity indices from underwater recordings in both areas in 2020 and 2024, and compared them to those obtained from conventional fish sampling methods. Acoustic-based indices were in accordance with fishing-based indices and showed anticipated differences between protected vs. exploited areas. This first PAM assessment in underwater mangrove suggests it might be a useful tool for MPA monitoring in this type of habitats, and open the way to continuous, fishery-independent, non-intrusive fish assemblage monitoring system. Such monitoring system would contribute to the establishment and acceptance of protected areas in mangroves ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111051"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143792141","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Non-linear homogenization of small mammal communities following habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot","authors":"Ana Cláudia Delciellos ,&nbsp;Vitor Nelson Teixeira Borges-Júnior ,&nbsp;Rui Cerqueira ,&nbsp;Marcus Vinícius Vieira ,&nbsp;Jayme Augusto Prevedello","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111144","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111144","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Habitat loss has pervasive effects on alfa and gamma diversity, but its impacts on beta diversity are less clear, with possible outcomes ranging from biotic heterogenization (increase in beta diversity) to biotic homogenization (decrease in beta diversity). A powerful tool to understand beta diversity is Generalized Dissimilarity Modelling (GDM), which allows comparing different drivers of beta diversity and testing for non-linear responses to habitat loss. Here we applied GDM, for the first time, to test for the occurrence of non-linear changes in beta diversity following habitat loss, while controlling for spatial and methodological factors, as well as geographic distance. We used a comprehensive empirical dataset with 30 sites sampled for non-volant small mammals over a 10-year period within the Atlantic Forest biodiversity hotspot. Forest cover was an important driver of total beta diversity and turnover, but not nestedness. A 20 % forest cover threshold was found for total beta diversity and turnover, with little compositional change below this threshold, suggesting the occurrence of biotic homogenization. This result was corroborated by a more traditional and categorical method, as multiple-site turnover was significantly lower for sites with low forest cover (&lt;20 %) compared to both intermediate- (20–60 %) and high-cover sites (&gt;60 %). The detection of a non-linear biotic homogenization can be useful to guide conservation initiatives, as it suggests the need to maintain &gt;20 % of forest cover in landscapes to maintain biodiverse communities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":"Article 111144"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143799202","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Past present: Extinction debt of forest mammals from urban areas","authors":"Leonardo Ancillotto ,&nbsp;Giulia Guerri ,&nbsp;Paolo Agnelli ,&nbsp;Laura Bonora ,&nbsp;Martino Maggioni ,&nbsp;Marco Morabito ,&nbsp;Emiliano Mori","doi":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111143","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111143","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Increasing amounts of scientific literature focus on ecological processes that shape urban wildlife assemblages. Besides few clear patterns in species dynamics, most literature on the topic focuses on few taxonomic groups and on current landscape structure, leaving huge gaps in our ability to understand, and possibly overcome, extinction processes in cities. Here, we use the city of Florence and its mammalian fauna as a model system to define patterns of local occurrence within large urban areas, testing the hypothesis that past habitat availability may shape the current presence of species i.e., evidencing extinction debt in urban mammals. We conducted a systematic collection of mammal records from Florence, and organized data into two checklists, corresponding to the milestones of urban development history of Florence. We built a land use map for each of these periods, and we modelled total species richness, richness of ecological guilds, and occurrence of individual species, as a function of past and present land use compositions and ecological preferences. We retrieved 1297 records of mammals from Florence, spanning from year 1832 to 2023, and belonging to 62 species. Besides evidencing both local extinction and colonization events, and revealing a net increase of local species richness in time, forest-specialized mammals showed evidence of extinction debt in the city, indicating that current levels of diversity will likely decrease as a delayed response to past habitat loss. Our long-term analysis also revealed the relationship between land use dynamics and the occurrence of some forest species in the urban landscape. We highlight that current species assemblage at urban sites is largely due to the lag between habitat loss and species' responses, particularly for taxa associated with forests, indicating that many species actually represent sorts of “living dead” populations that may be lost if no action is taken to re-establish profitable habitat.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55375,"journal":{"name":"Biological Conservation","volume":"306 ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143784971","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}