Ecology and Society最新文献

{"title":"Shrub encroachment and stakeholder perceptions of rangeland ecosystem services: balancing conservation and management?","authors":"Scott A. Jones, Larry A. Fisher, José R. Soto, Steven R. Archer","doi":"10.5751/es-15113-290313","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15113-290313","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Although the impacts of shrub encroachment on the ecosystem processes have been well-documented, little is known about the extent to which socio-cultural values and perceptions might influence actions undertaken to manage shrub proliferation. Understanding stakeholder values is important because the ecosystem’s capacity to supply a given service or suite of services must be balanced against the value society places on them. Research to date has emphasized supply with little consideration of value, making it difficult to comprehensively or objectively evaluate trade-offs and set priorities, particularly when managing for one particular service or a suite of services that may adversely affect other services. To address this, we conducted a case study in Southern Arizona and New Mexico (USA) to evaluate stakeholder perceptions of and preferences for various ecosystem services provided on semi-arid rangelands where shrub proliferation has impacted traditional livestock grazing. Perceptions of rangeland ecosystem services were elicited via a visually based landscape interpretation while preferences were quantified using best-worst scaling (BWS). Our findings suggest that stakeholders familiar with rangelands and their management generally perceive low shrub cover as providing a wider range of valued ecosystem services compared to rangelands with high shrub cover. Contrary to expectations, ecosystem service preferences in the context of shrub encroachment were generally uniform across all stakeholder groups (e.g., ranchers, state/federal governmental employees, non-governmental land managers, academicians, recreationists), with habitat for biodiversity and erosion control being identified as the most preferred. Accordingly, our results indicate that the widespread perception/assumption that ranchers in this region undertake brush management to enhance livestock production solely for economic gain is seen as too narrow. Our results also suggest an opportunity for brush management to serve as a potential win-win management action if framed as a way to maintain or promote rangeland biodiversity and mitigate erosion.</p>\u0000<p>The post Shrub encroachment and stakeholder perceptions of rangeland ecosystem services: balancing conservation and management? first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"78 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141872541","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quantifying large-scale impacts of cattle grazing on annual burn probability in Napa and Sonoma Counties, California","authors":"Genoa I. Starrs, Katherine J. Siegel, Stephanie Larson, Van Butsic","doi":"10.5751/es-15080-290310","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15080-290310","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Wildfire in California is an increasing threat to life and property. The expansion of urban and suburban development into wildlands limits risk-reduction options like prescribed burning, whereas large-scale mechanical and herbicide treatments can be cost prohibitive and unpalatable to the public. Cattle grazing is a low risk, affordable treatment not frequently considered for use explicitly for fuels reduction in California. To examine the impact of cattle grazing on fire in Napa and Sonoma Counties, California, we quantified its effects as change in average annual burn probability. Probabilities were calculated for 2001–2017 using mixed-effect regression models in combination with a range of grazing intensities and extents. These grazing scenarios were designed to represent current grazing conditions, ungrazed conditions, adding grazing to high priority landscapes, and grazing the full study area. We estimated that under current grazing conditions, cattle grazing reduces average annual burn probability 45% (from 9.9% to 5.4%) compared to ungrazed conditions. Adding grazing to high priority landscapes as identified by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) decreased their average annual burn probability by 82% (from 7.6% to 1.4%) compared to under current grazing conditions. Of the scenarios assessed, grazing high priority landscapes heavily while maintaining the current extent and intensity of grazing on other rangelands provided the best return in terms of decreased burn probability per additional area grazed. Finally, we demonstrated how our methodologies can be utilized by fuel managers and planners to identify key areas for treatment with cattle grazing. Our findings suggest cattle grazing provides benefits to the study area by reducing overall burn probability, and that extending its use to treat fuels in priority areas in and around the wildland urban interface could provide further fire-risk reduction on community-adjacent lands. Land managers may find cattle grazing a valuable long term fuel-management tool at the landscape scale.</p>\u0000<p>The post Quantifying large-scale impacts of cattle grazing on annual burn probability in Napa and Sonoma Counties, California first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141771798","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The good, the bad, and the unseen: wild mammal encounters influence wildlife preferences of residents across socio-demographic gradients","authors":"Simon S. Moesch, Tanja M. Straka, Jonathan M. Jeschke, Dagmar Haase, Stephanie Kramer-Schadt","doi":"10.5751/es-15211-290306","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15211-290306","url":null,"abstract":"<p>As natural habitats decline and wildlife adapts to increasing anthropogenic disturbance, it is crucial to understand human-wildlife relationships in residential areas. However, relevant studies are limited and mostly focused on single cities. To address this knowledge gap, we investigated people&#8217;s preferences for seeing wild mammals in residential areas by conducting and analyzing an online survey distributed across Germany (n = 2997 participants). Our results revealed that preferred species (squirrels, hedgehogs, hares, roe deer) were frequently encountered, whereas unpreferred species were those encountered frequently (rats, martens), as well as those encountered rarely (wild boar, coypus, raccoons). We also found a moderately positive correlation between the number of encounters with mammals and them being preferred by humans. Finally, some socio-demographic variables, particularly gender, garden access, and urbanity, are significantly related to human preferences. Based on our results, we propose tailoring wildlife management in residential areas to promote the positive attributes of preferred wildlife as biodiversity ambassadors, while also addressing ways to mitigate encounters and negative perceptions associated with unpreferred species.</p>\u0000<p>The post The good, the bad, and the unseen: wild mammal encounters influence wildlife preferences of residents across socio-demographic gradients first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"24 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141744423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pathways for FEW nexus collaboration in U.S. city resilience planning","authors":"J. Leah Jones-Crank","doi":"10.5751/es-15187-290305","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15187-290305","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The food-energy-water (FEW) nexus has been argued as an approach to improve system resilience and sustainability theoretically. However, there is limited empirical understanding of which governance factors lead to FEW nexus collaboration in practice. The purpose of this study is to investigate the conditions associated with FEW nexus collaboration in cities in resilience planning: does it arise from risk of resource insecurity, pre-existing governance mechanisms, or both? The study analyzed the 22 cities in the United States that are part of the Resilient Cities Network using fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis. The results show that food, energy, and water insecurity are not sufficient to explain FEW nexus collaboration in resilience planning. However, the results do show that FEW nexus collaboration is present in resilience planning in (a) cities that do experience water insecurity and employ two of three investigated governance conditions—policy coherence, stakeholder participation, or institutional support—or (b) that employ all three governance conditions, regardless of whether or not they experience water insecurity. It concludes that the risk of resource insecurity alone is not sufficient to explain cities&#8217; implementation of FEW nexus collaborations and provides policy recommendations for increased FEW nexus collaboration in practice.</p>\u0000<p>The post Pathways for FEW nexus collaboration in U.S. city resilience planning first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"91 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141718492","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Colonialism and the Blue Economy: confronting historical legacies to enable equitable ocean development","authors":"Tim P. Clark, Andrés M. Cisneros-Montemayor","doi":"10.5751/es-15122-290304","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15122-290304","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Recognizing the global challenges faced by marine ecosystems and the people that depend on them, there is a growing worldwide uptake of the “Blue Economy” approach for establishing equitable and sustainable ocean industries. Research has shown that the capacity to achieve these Blue Economies is largely shaped by enabling governance conditions related to social and economic equity, more so than available natural resources. Yet there is often a very wide variation across such enabling conditions even within nations and subregions of the world. This must be addressed to build the foundations necessary for regional development and cooperation in shared ocean systems, but will require much beyond investments in scientific knowledge, technology, or infrastructure. Indeed, in most developing (and some developed) regions of the world, enabling conditions for and establishing a Blue Economy will require confronting and redressing colonial and postcolonial histories of systematic underdevelopment. Accordingly, we conduct a regional, historical comparative analysis to assess how country differences in colonial and post-colonial development processes correspond with varying levels of Blue Economy capacity. We focus on the Caribbean given its deep reliance on ocean systems, the wide variability in current enabling conditions for a Blue Economy, and its long history of colonial exploitation. Our structural analysis emphasizes how the historical forces of colonial and neocolonial development serve as long-standing obstacles to achieving high Blue Economy capacity in the region. We reason that these findings provide further justification for reparation programs, which possess relevance for ocean sustainability and development across the Global South.</p>\u0000<p>The post Colonialism and the Blue Economy: confronting historical legacies to enable equitable ocean development first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"10 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141718493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Carnivores’ contributions to people in Europe","authors":"Sofía Palacios-Pacheco, Berta Martín-López, Mónica Expósito-Granados, Juan M. Requena-Mullor, Jorge Lozano, José Antonio Sánchez-Zapata, Zebensui Morales-Reyes, Antonio J. Castro","doi":"10.5751/es-15249-290309","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15249-290309","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Human-carnivore relations in Europe have varied throughout history. Because of recent conservation efforts and passive rewilding, carnivore populations are recovering, which translates into more interactions with humans. Thus, unraveling these interactions as well as the multiple contributions carnivores provide to people is crucial to their conservation. We examined the literature conducted in Europe since 2000 and used the nature’s contributions to people (NCP) framework to identify factors that have shaped human-carnivore relations. To do so, we examined the state of scientific knowledge and relationships among types of NCP from carnivores, countries, and carnivore species; and between NCP, actors, and management actions. Results indicated that research has been oriented toward large carnivore species and their detrimental contributions to people. Further, the effectiveness of carnivore management strategies has only been evaluated and monitored in a limited set of all the research. To balance any negative views on carnivores, we suggest that the recognition of the duality of carnivores, as providers of both beneficial and detrimental contributions, should be included in EU conservation policies.</p>\u0000<p>The post Carnivores’ contributions to people in Europe first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141771799","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Place meaning, speculation, and emerging public perceptions of carbon-storing marine sediments in Dundalk Bay, Ireland","authors":"Tomas Buitendijk, Britta Thiemt, Geertje Schuitema, Tasman P. Crowe, Mark Coughlan","doi":"10.5751/es-15293-290314","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15293-290314","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The natural capacity of marine sediments to capture, sequester, and store organic carbon has been recognized by researchers and policy makers for its potential to mitigate against climate change. As a result, Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and Marine Protected Area (MPA) designation processes increasingly aim to protect “blue carbon” stored in marine sediments by reducing anthropogenic activities that disturb the seabed (e.g., bottom trawling). In this research, we engaged with coastal residents around Dundalk Bay, Ireland to explore public perceptions of the presence and management of carbon-storing marine sediments in the context of the multifaceted relationship between communities and the environment. This has not been previously studied in an empirical setting. Given the largely “unknown” character of this source of blue carbon, we theorized that speculation played a key role in sustaining emerging perceptions of the sediments, by creating a link with existing place meanings. We used interviews (n = 12) and a focus group (n = 7). Reflexive thematic analysis of the data showed that local residents associated multiple, overlapping meanings with Dundalk Bay. We found evidence that speculative mechanisms such as analogy and experiential knowledge were used to bridge between existing place meanings and emerging perceptions of carbon-storing marine sediments, which also helped indicate the valence of people’s feelings about the sediments. We found different views about the presence of the sediments, and residents varied in their prioritization of measures to protect either nature or economic activity in the bay. Because of scientific knowledge gaps related to the distribution and character of marine sediments and the impacts of anthropogenic activity, participants stressed the need for further research and a careful approach to the management of the bay and its sediments. Our work reiterates the importance of recognizing existing people–place connections to understand potential responses to changes in the use and/or management of marine environments. This can help achieve a more engaged and socially acceptable MSP process.</p>\u0000<p>The post Place meaning, speculation, and emerging public perceptions of carbon-storing marine sediments in Dundalk Bay, Ireland first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"187 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141885526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Linking smallholders’ livelihood resilience with their adaptation strategies to climate impacts: insights from the Tibetan Plateau","authors":"Xinjun He, Jianzhong Yan, Liang Emlyn Yang, Junying Wang, Hong Zhou, Xue Lin","doi":"10.5751/es-14639-290207","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-14639-290207","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Adaptation and livelihood resilience are two key concepts for understanding the climate change process of smallholder farmers, but the relationships between them are not well understood. In this paper, with supporting data from household questionnaire surveys in four regions of the Tibetan Plateau (n = 1552), we aim to explore the relationships between smallholder farmers’ climate adaptation and livelihood resilience. Based on existing studies, we developed a conceptual framework to integrate adaptation and livelihood resilience, and constructed a quantitative indicator system to measure livelihood resilience. The adaptation measures adopted by smallholders were classified into stepping out (SO) and stepping up (SU) strategies, and the livelihood resilience of smallholders with different adaptation strategies was calculated and compared using one-way analysis of variance. The multinomial logit (mlogit) model was used to examine the factors influencing the adoption of different adaptation strategies by smallholders. The results showed that the livelihood resilience of smallholders who adopted adaptation strategies was higher than that of those who did not, while the livelihood resilience of smallholders who adopted SO strategies was higher than that of those who adopted SU strategies. The mlogit model reported the factors that influence the adoption of different adaptation strategies by smallholders: household size, health conditions, number of cropland plots, agricultural equipment, number of livestock, and nonagricultural income. These indicators play different roles in the adoption of different adaptation strategies by smallholders. In particular, local government interventions (credit, cooperatives, training) are not only an important component of smallholders’ livelihood resilience, but also important determinants of their livelihood strategies. Based on our findings, it is recommended that the government should promote smallholders’ adaptation and strengthen their livelihood resilience to climate change by expanding the coverage of credit, cooperatives, and training, diversifying the forms of cooperatives, enriching the content of training, and increasing the frequency of training.</p>\u0000<p>The post Linking smallholders’ livelihood resilience with their adaptation strategies to climate impacts: insights from the Tibetan Plateau first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"20 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141061684","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Developing a system model for articulating the social-ecological impacts of species reintroduction","authors":"Ryo Sakurai, Takuro Uehara, Hiroshi Tsunoda, Hiroto Enari, Richard C. Stedman, Ayumi Onuma","doi":"10.5751/es-14952-290209","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-14952-290209","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Reintroducing locally extinct/extirpated species has been considered as an approach for restoring ecosystems. Although such projects share the same goals of rebuilding previously affected ecosystems, the overall impacts that such reintroductions generate on both ecosystems and human society, i.e., on the social-ecological system, are difficult to measure. We propose a system dynamics approach, a platform on which both natural and social scientists could collaborate to identify the social-ecological impacts of species reintroduction as well as factors that affect such decision making. We use cases in Japan to demonstrate the potential applicability of system dynamics in terms of (1) understanding the impacts of a previously reintroduced species, the Oriental Stork (<em>Ciconia boyciana</em>), and (2) predicting the impacts of reintroduction of wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>). We present a causal loop diagram of the social and ecological effects of Oriental Stork reintroduction, and we discuss how the relationships between factors could be articulated based on empirical data and ongoing projects in Japan. The model demonstrates how local residents began to appreciate the rich biodiversity, including the Oriental Stork, following its reintroduction, and how public support toward such reintroduction enhanced further projects to reintroduce these species in different parts of Japan. A similar diagram, created to illustrate the social and ecological effects of the potential reintroduction of wolves to Japan, demonstrates how social factors such as environmental education and public attitudes could affect decision making as well as ecological factors such as predator-prey dynamics and overall biodiversity. Further, human-wolf conflicts could negatively affect the overall loop. Creating causal loop diagrams can help managers and stakeholders understand that species reintroduction projects need to be considered via an interdisciplinary approach. The models illustrate that these problems are dynamic and that the factors affecting or affected by such projects change over time, implying the importance of both the spatial and temporal scales in managing reintroduction projects.</p>\u0000<p>The post Developing a system model for articulating the social-ecological impacts of species reintroduction first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"37 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141063955","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Emergence of social-psychological barriers to social-ecological resilience: from causes to solutions","authors":"Jean-Denis Mathias, John M. Anderies, Anne-Sophie Crépin, Michael Dambrun, Therese Lindahl, Jon Norberg","doi":"10.5751/es-15052-290206","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15052-290206","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study explores social-psychological barriers that may affect resilience in the context of sustainability. These barriers can be understood as unobserved processes that reduce the capacity of a social-ecological system to recover after a perturbation or transformation. Analyzing social-psychological processes enables us to distinguish passive and active processes, at the individual and collective levels. Our work suggests that interacting social and psychological processes should be considered as dynamically evolving determinants of resilience, especially when perturbations can change the psychology of individuals, and thus the underlying dynamics of social-ecological systems. Hence, considering social-psychological barriers and the conditions under which they emerge may provide decision makers with useful insights for coping with ineluctable uncertainties that reduce systems’ transformative capacity and thus their general resilience.</p>\u0000<p>The post Emergence of social-psychological barriers to social-ecological resilience: from causes to solutions first appeared on Ecology & Society.</p>","PeriodicalId":51028,"journal":{"name":"Ecology and Society","volume":"207 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2024-05-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141061635","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"社会学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}