SAE Technical Paper Series最新文献

{"title":"Runtime Safety Assurance of Autonomous Last-Mile Delivery Vehicles in Urban-like Environment","authors":"I. Aslam, Adina Aniculaesei, Abhishek Buragohain, Meng Zhang, Daniel Bamal, Andreas Rausch","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2991","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2991","url":null,"abstract":"The conventional process of last-mile delivery logistics often leads to safety problems for road users and a high level of environmental pollution. Delivery drivers must deal with frequent stops, search for a convenient parking spot and sometimes navigate through the narrow streets causing traffic congestion and possibly safety issues for the ego vehicle as well as for other traffic participants. This process is not only time consuming but also environmentally impactful, especially in low-emission zones where prolonged vehicle idling can lead to air pollution and to high operational costs. To overcome these challenges, a reliable system is required that not only ensures the flexible, safe and smooth delivery of goods but also cuts the costs and meets the delivery target. In the dynamic landscape of last-mile delivery, LogiSmile, an EU project, introduced a solution to urban delivery challenges through an innovative cooperation between an Autonomous Hub Vehicle (AHV) and an Autonomous Delivery Device (ADD). This work addresses not only these challenges but also provides insight into a future where last-mile delivery is safer, more efficient and nature friendly. As a part of this project, an integrated safety system architecture has been developed for the AHV, featuring a dependability cage (DC) for onboard monitoring of a single autonomous vehicle and a remote command control center (CCC) for offboard monitoring of a fleet of autonomous vehicles. Operating at SAE levels 3/4 (SAE L3/4), the AHV incorporates a safety driver and a monitoring system, ensuring compliance with SAE guidelines. The DC enables safe transitions to degraded/ fail-safe driving modes in response to safety violations of the autonomous driving system (ADS), optimizing the vehicle's operational safety. Additionally, the CCC enhances autonomy by redundantly monitoring the fleet of vehicles via real-time sensor streams, also facilitating the communication with the ADD and the reconfiguration of the driving mode depending on the current road scenario. The project results were successfully demonstrated in Hamburg in 2022, showcasing the practical implementation of the developed safety architecture and the insights gained.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"48 11","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687391","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Computational Study of Hydrogen Direct Injection Using a Pre-Chamber in an Opposed-Piston Engine","authors":"Rafael Menaca, Kevin Moreno Cabezas, Mohammad Raghib Shakeel, Giovanni Vorraro, James W. G. Turner, Hong G. Im","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3010","url":null,"abstract":"Combustion characteristics of a hydrogen (H2) direct-injected (DI) pre-chamber (PC)-assisted opposed piston two-stroke (OP2S) engine are investigated by 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The architecture of the OP2S engine has potential features for reducing wall heat losses, as the DI H2 jets are not directed towards the piston face. To overcome the high resistance to autoignition of H2, a PC technology was implemented in order to enhance the ignition of the mixture by the multiple hot reactive jets. To further investigate the interaction between the H2 plume and the chamber walls, three different piston bowl designs were evaluated and ranked based on a merit function. For the cases under study, the flat piston design was found to be most favorable (compared to the narrow and wide pistons) due to its reduced surface area for lower wall heat losses. The results also showcase that a co-optimization approach considering various parameters is an effective strategy to minimize the flame-wall interaction. The analysis showed that the PC jet must guarantee ignition and also a high-momentum exchange to support mixing-controlled and late combustion stages, while keeping safety limits from being exceeded. Finally, the results highlight that DI-PC H2 combustion exhibits Diesel-like behavior, which can be exploited to achieve high efficiency and low emissions. Similar to conventional Diesel combustion (CDC), DI-PC H2 combustion can provide the control of combustion phasing by adjusting the timing of the hot jet injection. While more work is needed to achieve the same level of efficiency as CDC, the present study demonstrated additional benefits of DI-PC concept as a robust carbon-free engine operation option. Finally, the analysis with respect to the fuel energy distribution and the DI-PC H2 combustion phases shows that it is possible to further optimize combustion, especially in mixing-controlled and late stages.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"10 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141685727","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Design of an Alternative Hardware Abstraction Layer for Embedded Systems with Time-Controlled Hardware Access","authors":"Gabriel Simmann, Vinay Veeranna, Reiner Kriesten","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2989","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2989","url":null,"abstract":"This paper proposes a novel approach to the design of a Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) specifically tailored to embedded systems, placing a significant emphasis on time-controlled hardware access. The general concept and utilization of a HAL in industrial projects are widespread, serving as a well-established method in embedded systems development. HALs enhance application software portability, simplify underlying hardware usage by abstracting its inherent complexity and reduce overall development costs through software reusability. Beyond these established advantages, this paper introduces a conceptual framework that addresses critical challenges related to debugging and mitigates input-related problems often encountered in embedded systems. This becomes particularly pertinent in the automotive context, where the intricate operational environment of embedded systems demands robust solutions. The HAL design presented in this paper mitigates these issues. The design is structured as a modular software concept, leveraging the strategic use of configuration tables to provide an abstracted, rapid and well-organized method for configuring hardware. Furthermore, those configuration tables are used to realize an application-specific time-controlled synchronization mechanism between the actual hardware data registers and an internal software representation of those. The application software exclusively interacts with this representation, preventing errors arising from unstable inputs and ensuring strict timing. This paper provides a detailed description of the design, with a focus on its modular structure for an efficient and memory-saving implementation. Moreover, the document explores and discusses potential extensions and adaptations to the proposed design, enhancing its flexibility for individual use cases. In conclusion, this comprehensive exploration seeks to contribute to the advancement of embedded systems development by offering a refined and adaptable HAL design.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"324 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141686546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Software-Supported Processes for Aerodynamic Homologation of Vehicles","authors":"Jan D. Jacob","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3004","url":null,"abstract":"Homologation is an important process in vehicle development and aerodynamics a main data contributor. The process is heavily interconnected: Production planning defines the available assemblies. Construction defines their parts and features. Sales defines the assemblies offered in different markets, where Legislation defines the rules applicable to homologation. Control engineers define the behavior of active, aerodynamically relevant components. Wind tunnels are the main test tool for the homologation, accompanied by surface-area measurement systems. Mechanics support these test operations. The prototype management provides test vehicles, while parts come from various production and prototyping sources and are stored and commissioned by logistics. Several phases of this complex process share the same context: Production timelines for assemblies and parts for each chassis-engine package define which drag coefficients or drag coefficient contributions shall be determined. Absolute and relative measurement requirements are derived and used to create tests. The test results are linked to the requirements. Drag coefficient contributions for each assembly are derived from this. Combining this data with active components’ control concepts, drive cycle definitions and market sales programs, and following legal rules, yields the drag coefficients for homologation in each market. All of this must adhere to an ISO17025-compliant process in a manageable and efficient manner [4]. This includes optimization tasks for wind tunnel use, parts and vehicle availability, and task-organization for mechanics and operators – while keeping up with short development cycles and time-to-market pressure. We present a holistic solution that enables efficient and compliant management of this complex process: Open interfaces support flexible integration of third-party systems. Modular, configurable components offer the necessary flexibility for complex workflows. Combining data handling and planning tasks keeps all information within the same context. An intuitive user interface ensures a smooth and guided user experience. This sophisticated concept can also be transferred to other homologation processes.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"63 8","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687202","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Steering System with Mechanical Coupling of the Wheels and the Possibility of Wheel Steering in Opposite Directions","authors":"Fabian Weitz, Frank Gauterin, Michael Frey, N. Ostendorff","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2970","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2970","url":null,"abstract":"In the course of the U-Shift project, an automated, driverless and electrically driven vehicle concept is developed. By separating the vehicle into a drive module and a transport capsule, a novel form of mobility is created. The autonomous driving module, the so-called Driveboard, is able to change the transport capsules independently and thus serves both passenger and goods transport. In order to be able to use the vehicle effectively, especially in urban areas, the space required for manoeuvring and loading or unloading the capsules must be kept as small as possible. This poses special challenges for the steering system.In this paper, a novel steering system is presented that enables both same-direction and opposite-direction wheel steering. First, the fundamental concept of the steering system is presented. After that, the design is explained and the assembled steering system is shown. During normal cornering, there is a mechanical coupling between the wheels. Which means that the occurring forces and moments are mutually supported by the wheels. This minimises the energy demand of the steering system. To manoeuvre the vehicle with minimal space requirements the mechanical coupling of the wheels can be disconnected. By turning the front wheels in the opposite direction to the centre of the vehicle, the pivot point of the vehicle can be shifted to the centre of the rear axle. The vehicle can thus be turned around the centre of the rear axle, which reduces the space required for manoeuvring to a necessary minimum. The steering system presented thus allows the advantages of a conventional steering system to be combined with the advantages of single-wheel steering system.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"52 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141838114","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fitting Automotive Quality and Safety Expectations to Free and Open Source Software","authors":"Joachim Schlosser, Ulrich Kirchmaier, Michael Armbruster, Wolfgang Lindner","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2984","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2984","url":null,"abstract":"Due to manifold benefits compared to proprietary software solutions, free and open source software (FOSS) in general, and Linux especially becomes more and more relevant for embedded solutions in the automotive domain, especially in High Performance Computing Platforms (HPC). However, taking over liability and warranty for a FOSS-based problem raises the problem of software quality assurance, and thus risk control. In order to control and minimize the residual risk of a product or service, the traditional and well-accepted measure in the automotive domain is to assess the engineering processes and resulting work products via a process assessment model given by the ASPICE maturity model, as well as requirements from functional safety standards for safety related functions. The underlying process reference model of ASPICE covers software development performed and controlled by an organization. However, this situation is not given by and even contrary to the nature of FOSS development, where high quality is achieved based on feedback and contributions of an open community. While typical software quality assurance measures are widespread in community-based software development, a single entity cannot control these. This, along with the huge code base in Linux makes applying the low-level software related processes ASPICE Process Reference Model (PRM) both meaningless and economically infeasible. In this paper, we propose a selection and tailoring of standard ASPICE accompanied with compensation measures, which accounts for the FOSS specifics. This allows to achieve the quality assurance and risk mitigation goals of ASPICE, and consequently an assessment via the ASPICE Process Assessment Model (PAM) as well as functional safety standards. We further provide details on our solutions and strategies to fulfill the key elements of our solution. The solution presented here is one key factor for our EB corbos Linux – built on Ubuntu to provide a production grade Linux distribution suited to the automotive embedded needs, including liability, warranty, and long-term maintenance.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"13 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis of Human Driving behavior with Focus on Vehicle Lateral Control","authors":"Jannes Iatropoulos, Anna Panzer, Roman Henze","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2997","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2997","url":null,"abstract":"The optimization and further development of automated driving functions offers great potential to relieve the driver in various driving situations and increase road safety. Simulative testing in particular is an indispensable tool in this process, allowing conclusions to be drawn about the design of automated driving functions at a very early stage of development. In this context, the use of driving simulators provides support so that the driving functions of tomorrow can be experienced in a very safe and reproducible environment. The focus of the acceptance and optimization of automated driving functions is particularly on vehicle lateral control functions. As part of this paper, a test person study was carried out regarding manual vehicle lateral control on the dynamic vehicle road simulator at the Institute of Automotive Engineering. The basis for this is the route generation as a result of the evaluation of curve radii from several hundred thousand kilometers of real measurement data from a vehicle fleet and guidelines for the layout of rural roads in Germany. The core component of this paper is the analysis of manual vehicle lateral control and the subdivision into different driving styles. For this purpose, various methods were applied and parameters were calculated that can be used to perform such a categorization and be used in future work for objectification. The generated results of this paper will be used in future work for the development of automated vehicle lateral control which takes human driving behavior into account in order to achieve higher customer acceptance, increase driving comfort and continue to ensure driving safety.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"55 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687599","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhancing BEV Energy Management: Neural Network-Based System Identification for Thermal Control Strategies","authors":"Kai Franke, David Hemkemeyer, Patrick Schutzeich, Lukas Schäfers, Stefan Pischinger","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-3005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-3005","url":null,"abstract":"Modeling thermal systems in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is crucial for enhancing energy efficiency through predictive control strategies, thereby extending vehicle range. A major obstacle in this modeling is the often limited availability of detailed system information. This research introduces a methodology using neural networks for system identification, a powerful technique capable of approximating the physical behavior of thermal systems with minimal data requirements. By employing black-box models, this approach supports the creation of optimization-based control strategies, such as Model Predictive Control (MPC) and Reinforcement Learning-based control (RL). The system identification process is executed using MATLAB Simulink, with virtual training data produced by a Simulink models to establish the method's feasibility. The neural networks utilized for system identification are implemented in MATLAB code. This study conducts a comparative analysis between the white-box models and the generated black-box models, focusing on their predictive accuracy, to highlight the trade-offs and advantages inherent to each modeling approach. The findings from this study suggest that employing neural network-based black-box models can enhance the development of advanced control strategies in BEVs. As a forward-looking perspective, the research outlines a specific approach for the integration of these models into control strategy development. Furthermore, it discusses the potential for methodological enhancements and the application of the system identification process to additional thermal system components, with the overall goal of enhancing energy management in BEVs.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"19 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687008","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Designing a Prototype of a Mobile Charging Robot for Charging of Electric Vehicles","authors":"Patricia Wessel, Max Faßbender, Jonathan Gerz, Jakob Andert","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2990","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2990","url":null,"abstract":"As the market for electric vehicles grows, so does the demand for appropriate charging infrastructure. The availability of sufficient charging points is essential to increase public acceptance of electric vehicles and to avoid the so-called “charging anxiety”. However, the charging stations currently installed may not be able to meet the full charging demand, especially in areas where there is a general lack of grid infrastructure, or where the fluctuating nature of charging demand requires flexible, high-power charging solutions that do not require expensive grid extensions. In such cases, the use of mobile charging stations provides a good opportunity to complement the existing charging network. This paper presents a prototype of a mobile charging solution that is being developed as part of an ongoing research project, and discusses different use cases. The solution presented consists of a semi-autonomous robotic platform equipped with a high voltage battery and multiple charging interfaces. The robot can be charged via a CCS charging interface on a DC fast charging point. Once charged, the robot can be guided to an electric vehicle and charge it with power equivalent to a DC fast charger. In addition to the DC charging capability, the robot is equipped with a bidirectional inductive charging interface. This allows it to connect to a specially developed micro-mobility charging station, where it can either receive energy or provide its own energy to the station, which can then be used to charge micro-mobility vehicles connected to the station, such as electric bicycles. Based on the experience with the first prototype of the mobile charging robot, this paper highlights the applicability of the mobile charging robot for different use cases.","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"73 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141688669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Neural Network Modeling of Black Box Controls for Internal Combustion Engine Calibration","authors":"Matteo Meli, Zezhou Wang, Peter Bailly, Stefan Pischinger","doi":"10.4271/2024-01-2995","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2995","url":null,"abstract":"<div class=\"section abstract\"><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">The calibration of Engine Control Units (ECUs) for road vehicles is challenged by stringent legal and environmental regulations, coupled with short development cycles. The growing number of vehicle variants, although sharing similar engines and control algorithms, requires different calibrations. Additionally, modern engines feature increasingly number of adjustment variables, along with complex parallel and nested conditions within the software, demanding a significant amount of measurement data during development.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">The current state-of-the-art (White Box) model-based ECU calibration proves effective but involves considerable effort for model construction and validation. This is often hindered by limited function documentation, available measurements, and hardware representation capabilities.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">This article introduces a model-based calibration approach using Neural Networks (Black Box) for two distinct ECU functional structures with minimal software documentation. The ECU is operated on a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) rig for measurement data generation.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">To build surrogate models of these ECU functions, Neural Network model inputs are allocated categorized into two categories: function inputs as perceived by the logic level (White Box) software function, and curve/map fitting features representing the adjustment variables of the ECU function.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">Factors influencing surrogate model accuracy such as, Neural Network hyperparameter optimization, input space amount and distribution as well as the parameter adjustment is investigated. Results show an increase in accuracy with the increasing number of implemented parameters, as well as the scalability of ECU function model representation with measurement data.</div><div class=\"htmlview paragraph\">In addition to calibration purposes, the presented function representation method facilitates the use of plant models to replace time-consuming function construction and validation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":510086,"journal":{"name":"SAE Technical Paper Series","volume":"53 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141687488","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}