John R. Anderson, Shawn Betts, Daniel Bothell, Christian Lebiere
{"title":"Discovering skill","authors":"John R. Anderson, Shawn Betts, Daniel Bothell, Christian Lebiere","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101410","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101410","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This paper shows how identical skills can emerge either from instruction or discovery when both result in an understanding of the causal structure of the task domain. The paper focuses on the discovery process, extending the skill acquisition model of Anderson et al. (2019) to address learning by discovery. The discovery process involves exploring the environment and developing associations between discontinuities in the task and events that precede them. The growth of associative strength in ACT-R serves to identify potential causal connections. The model can derive operators from these discovered causal relations<span> just as does with the instructed causal information. Subjects were given a task of learning to play a video game either with a description of the game’s causal structure (Instruction) or not (Discovery). The Instruction subjects learned faster, but successful Discovery subjects caught up. After 20 3-minute games the behavior of the successful subjects in the two groups was largely indistinguishable. The play of these Discovery subjects jumped in the same discrete way as did the behavior of simulated subjects in the model. These results show how implicit processes (associative learning, control tuning) and explicit processes (causal inference, planning) can combine to produce human learning in complex environments.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101410","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39171947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Filling the gap in gap-filling: Long-distance dependency formation in sentence production","authors":"Shota Momma","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101411","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101411","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>In a sentence like <em>Who does the artist think chased the chef?</em>, the <em>who</em> at the beginning depends on the last bit of the sentence, <em>chased the chef</em>. This is an instance of a <em>long</em>-<em>distance dependency.</em><span> What is the nature of the cognitive process that allows speakers to produce sentences that include distant elements that form dependencies? In four experiments, speakers described drawings that elicited long-distance dependencies. Critically, speakers were sometimes primed to produce a </span><em>that</em> in sentences where <em>that</em> was ungrammatical due to a grammatical constraint known as the <em>that</em>-trace constraint (e.g.,*<em>Who does the artist think that chased the chef</em>). Results showed that, when primed to say an ungrammatical <em>that</em>, speakers were slower to <em>start</em> to speak. Because the <em>that</em>-trace constraint applies selectively to certain configurations of long-distance dependencies, this suggests that the grammatical details of the long-distance dependency are already planned before speakers start to speak the sentences involving long-distance dependencies. I propose a formal model that explains how speakers plan long-distance dependencies in advance of speaking them while also managing the cognitive pressure to speak sentences incrementally.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101411","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39227383","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Hannah J. Kramer , Deborah Goldfarb , Sarah M. Tashjian , Kristin Hansen Lagattuta
{"title":"Dichotomous thinking about social groups: Learning about one group can activate opposite beliefs about another group","authors":"Hannah J. Kramer , Deborah Goldfarb , Sarah M. Tashjian , Kristin Hansen Lagattuta","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101408","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101408","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Across three studies (<em>N</em> = 607), we examined people’s use of a <em>dichotomizing heuristic</em>—the inference that characteristics belonging to one group do not apply to another group—when making judgments about novel social groups. Participants learned information about one group (e.g., “Zuttles like apples”), and then made inferences about another group (e.g., “Do Twiggums like apples or hate apples?”). Study 1 acted as a proof of concept: Eight-year-olds and adults (but not 5-year-olds) assumed that the two groups would have opposite characteristics. Learning about the group as a generic whole versus as specific individuals boosted the use of the heuristic. Study 2 and Study 3 (sample sizes, methods, and analyses pre-registered), examined whether the presence or absence of several factors affected the activation and scope of the dichotomizing heuristic in adults. Whereas learning about or treating the groups as separate was necessary for activating dichotomous thinking, intergroup conflict and featuring only two (versus many) groups was not required. Moreover, the heuristic occurred when participants made both binary and scaled decisions. Once triggered, adults applied this cognitive shortcut widely—not only to benign (e.g., liking apples) and novel characteristics (e.g., liking modies), but also to evaluative traits signaling the morals or virtues of a social group (e.g., meanness or intelligence). Adults did not, however, extend the heuristic to the edges of improbability: They failed to dichotomize when doing so would attribute highly unusual preferences (e.g., disliking having fun). Taken together, these studies indicate the presence of a dichotomizing heuristic with broad implications for how people make social group inferences.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101408","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39260853","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Antonia F. Langenhoff , Alex Wiegmann , Joseph Y. Halpern , Joshua B. Tenenbaum , Tobias Gerstenberg
{"title":"Predicting responsibility judgments from dispositional inferences and causal attributions","authors":"Antonia F. Langenhoff , Alex Wiegmann , Joseph Y. Halpern , Joshua B. Tenenbaum , Tobias Gerstenberg","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101412","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101412","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The question of how people hold others responsible has motivated decades of theorizing and empirical work. In this paper, we develop and test a computational model that bridges the gap between broad but qualitative framework theories, and quantitative but narrow models. In our model, responsibility judgments are the result of two cognitive processes: a dispositional inference about a person’s character from their action, and a causal attribution about the person’s role in bringing about the outcome. We test the model in a group setting in which political committee members vote on whether or not a policy should be passed. We assessed participants’ dispositional inferences and causal attributions by asking how surprising and important a committee member’s vote was. Participants’ answers to these questions in Experiment 1 accurately predicted responsibility judgments in Experiment 2. In Experiments 3 and 4, we show that the model also predicts moral responsibility judgments, and that importance matters more for responsibility, while surprise matters more for judgments of wrongfulness.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101412","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39221602","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The scaled target learning model: Revisiting learning in the balloon analogue risk task","authors":"Ran Zhou, Jay I. Myung, Mark A. Pitt","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101407","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101407","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) is a sequential decision making<span> paradigm that assesses risk-taking behavior. Several computational models have been proposed for the BART that characterize risk-taking propensity. An aspect of task performance that has proven challenging to model is the learning that develops from experiencing wins and losses across trials, which has the potential to provide further insight into risky decision making. We developed the Scaled Target Learning (STL) model for this purpose. STL describes learning as adjustments to an individual’s strategy in reaction to outcomes in the task, with the size of adjustments reflecting an individual’s sensitivity to wins and losses. STL is shown to be sensitive to the learning elicited by experimental manipulations. In addition, the model matches or bests the performance of three competing models in traditional model comparison tests (e.g., parameter recovery performance, predictive accuracy, sensitivity to risk-taking propensity). Findings are discussed in the context of the learning process involved in the task. By characterizing the extent to which people are willing to adapt their strategies based on past experience, STL is a step toward a complete depiction of the psychological processes underlying sequential risk-taking behavior.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101407","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39148089","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Beyond linear order: The role of argument structure in speaking","authors":"Shota Momma , Victor S. Ferreira","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101397","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101397","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The current study examines how speakers plan sentences in which two words that form hierarchical dependency relationships - arguments and verbs - appear far apart in linear distance, to investigate how linear and hierarchical aspects of sentences simultaneously shape sentence planning processes. The results of six extended picture-word interference experiments suggest that speakers retrieve sentence-final verbs before the articulation of their sentence-initial patient or theme arguments, but not agent arguments, and before retrieving sentence-medial nouns inside modifiers. These results suggest that the time-course of sentence planning reflects hierarchically-defined dependency relationships over and above linear structure.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101397","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39108187","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Can humans perform mental regression on a graph? Accuracy and bias in the perception of scatterplots","authors":"Lorenzo Ciccione , Stanislas Dehaene","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101406","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101406","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Despite the widespread use of graphs, little is known about how fast and how accurately we can extract information from them. Through a series of four behavioral experiments, we characterized human performance in “mental regression”, i.e. the perception of statistical trends from scatterplots. When presented with a noisy scatterplot, even as briefly as 100 ms, human adults could accurately judge if it was increasing or decreasing, fit a regression line, and extrapolate outside the original data range, for both linear and non-linear functions. Performance was highly consistent across those three tasks of trend judgment, line fitting and extrapolation. Participants’ linear trend judgments took into account the slope, the noise, and the number of data points, and were tightly correlated with the <em>t</em><span>-test classically used to evaluate the significance of a linear regression. However, they overestimated the absolute value of the regression slope. This bias was inconsistent with ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, which minimizes the sum of square deviations, but consistent with the use of Deming regression, which treats the x and y axes symmetrically and minimizes the Euclidean distance to the fitting line. We speculate that this fast but biased perception of scatterplots may be based on a “neuronal recycling” of the human visual capacity to identify the medial axis of a shape.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101406","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39063771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Tianmin Shu , Yujia Peng , Song-Chun Zhu , Hongjing Lu
{"title":"A unified psychological space for human perception of physical and social events","authors":"Tianmin Shu , Yujia Peng , Song-Chun Zhu , Hongjing Lu","doi":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101398","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101398","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>One of the great feats of human perception is the generation of quick impressions of both physical and social events based on sparse displays of motion trajectories. Here we aim to provide a unified theory that captures the interconnections between perception of physical and social events. A simulation-based approach is used to generate a variety of animations depicting rich behavioral patterns. Human experiments used these animations to reveal that perception of dynamic stimuli undergoes a gradual transition from physical to social events. A learning-based computational framework is proposed to account for human judgments. The model learns to identify latent forces by inferring a family of potential functions capturing physical laws, and value functions describing the goals of agents. The model projects new animations into a sociophysical space with two psychological dimensions: an intuitive sense of whether physical laws are violated, and an impression of whether an agent possesses intentions to perform goal-directed actions. This derived sociophysical space predicts a meaningful partition between physical and social events, as well as a gradual transition from physical to social perception. The space also predicts human judgments of whether individual objects are lifeless objects in motion, or human agents performing goal-directed actions. These results demonstrate that a theoretical unification based on physical potential functions and goal-related values can account for the human ability to form an immediate impression of physical and social events. This ability provides an important pathway from perception to higher cognition.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2021.101398","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"39145737","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Relationship between brain structure, function and cognitive modelling","authors":"Sandie Taylor, L. Workman","doi":"10.4324/9781003014355-2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003014355-2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49424860","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Consciousness and metacognition","authors":"Sandie Taylor, L. Workman","doi":"10.4324/9781003014355-7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003014355-7","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":50669,"journal":{"name":"Cognitive Psychology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44573543","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}