Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"A systematic review focused on the identification and assessment of fire financial costs in buildings","authors":"Yam Hongxin Zhuang ,&nbsp;Eric S. Lin ,&nbsp;Xu Dai ,&nbsp;Martina Manes","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104465","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104465","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fire incidents in England caused £12 billion in financial costs in 2022, impacting lives, properties, businesses, and communities. Existing frameworks for evaluating fire costs remain incomplete. This research conducts a systematic literature review of building fire financial costs, including their cost components, and methodologies that quantify the direct and indirect costs of fire incidents, as well as the expenses of fire protection measures. Of the 15,416 studies, 9,276 were screened after removing duplicates, with 53 meeting acceptable criteria for detailed analysis. Direct costs, such as property damage and casualties, are quantified in the examined studies using statistical or modelling techniques. In contrast, indirect costs, including business disruptions, household expenses, and environmental impacts, are often underestimated. Fire protection costs, both active and passive, involving installation and maintenance expenses, are usually expressed as percentages of construction or operational budgets. Cost-benefit analyses, using Present Net Value and Cost-Benefit Ratios, demonstrate the significance of balancing the investment and benefit of fire protection measures. Findings highlight the variation in cost components and methodologies, emphasising the critical need for a standardised framework to accurately assess fire-related financial costs, enhance decision-making on fire protection investments, and reduce the economic impacts of fire incidents.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104465"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144563672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimising airport structural fire design with fire spread models: A case study on integrating GoZone with SAFIR","authors":"Jeremy Chang ,&nbsp;Antonio Gamba ,&nbsp;Linus Lim ,&nbsp;Peter Armstrong ,&nbsp;Konstantinos Papaioannou","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104460","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104460","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper marks a significant milestone in the GoZone (Gamba and Franssen, 2021) [1] design tool development by presenting its first real-world implementation in a major airport expansion project, transitioning the tool from theoretical development to practical application. One of the main challenges in a structural fire engineering project has been the lack of straightforward, computationally efficient methods to model travelling fires in the space of interest over time. The newly developed GoZone program addresses this need by providing an accessible yet robust solution for modelling fire spread. Airports are the ideal projects for integrating fire spread models into the structural fire design considering the large compartments, defined use, and specific fuel loads in different areas within the building. This paper presents a case study and discusses the application of structural fire engineering analysis for an airport expansion project, specifically adopting GoZone in estimating fire spread in large compartments, in combination with the thermal-mechanical software SAFIR (Franssen and Gernay, 2017) [2] to examine potential structural behaviour during fires. The case study completes the development cycle for GoZone by applying it in a complex, high-stakes commercial project.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104460"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144471280","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Inhibition of fire suppressants on the CO removal over ceria-supported transition metal catalysts","authors":"Ning Kang,&nbsp;Zhiqiang Zhao,&nbsp;Xiaoyang Yu,&nbsp;Qian Li,&nbsp;Jin Lin,&nbsp;Shouxiang Lu","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104461","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104461","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The CO elimination from fire smoke containing fire suppressants through transition metal oxides supported by ceria catalysts (M/Ce) faces new challenges. The effects of two typical fire suppressants (CF₃Br and NaHCO₃) on the conversion of CO and the evolution of intermediate species on three M/Ce catalysts (M = Cu, Co and Mn) were investigated. The impact mechanism of the fire suppressants was further revealed via in situ DRIFTS experiments for Cu/Ce catalyst in the absence and presence of fire suppressants. The results show that the activity and reusability of Cu/Ce and Co/Ce are decreased by the CF₃Br pretreatment but Mn/Ce exhibits a certain resistance. For the effect of NaHCO₃, the pyrolysis gases play a dominant role and its degree depends on the reaction temperature and the CO adsorption and activation capacity of catalysts. Moreover, in situ DRIFTS results reveal that the blocked reaction of adsorbed CO intermediates and oxygen species and the more severe masking of carbonates on the catalyst surface could be responsible for the decrease of the CO elimination performance due to the typical fire suppressants. This work can provide valuable insights for understanding the inhibition mechanism of fire suppression on CO elimination and exploring the resistance strategies to guarantee emergency rescue.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104461"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144492166","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Early season wildfires pose the highest threat to buildings and people in Sweden","authors":"Frida Vermina Plathner ,&nbsp;Johan Sjöström ,&nbsp;Anders Granström","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104457","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104457","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wildfire damage to the built environment and people is typically understood through case studies of high-impact events, or from incident databases where the smallest wildfires are not always accounted for. We analyzed an exhaustive database of 131 040 reported fire service wildfire dispatches (1996–2022) in Sweden. There were on average per year 126 wildfires that threatened buildings, 22 that ignited buildings, 17.6 that injured people and 1.1 that led to a fatality. The analysis showed that building ignitions, human injuries as well as fatalities in this region were caused primarily by relatively small fires (90th percentile &lt;10 ha) and that they occurred predominantly in the spring season. Untended grass litter near buildings constituted a much higher fire threat to the built environment than did forest vegetation, even when fire danger was relatively low. The source of the ignitions was 99 % anthropogenic and mostly connected with intentional fire use such as burning grass litter or garden debris. Our study highlights the need for improved fire statistics to cover the full extent of threats to life and property from wildfires. Further, it suggests that the potential for harm reduction through improved wildfire knowledge among the rural population should be large.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104457"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144471279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of the fall-off of gypsum board in lightweight and mass timber constructions and implications in fire resistance","authors":"Sanaz Ramzi,&nbsp;Hamzeh Hajiloo","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104455","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104455","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This review study investigates the fall-off behavior of gypsum board (GB) in Lightweight Wood (LW) assemblies by synthesizing a comprehensive dataset compiled from previously conducted full-scale fire resistance tests. To address the inherent variability and scatter in the existing experimental data, this study incorporates detailed analyses and statistical modeling to discover consistent trends. A few quantitative findings are as follows: adding a second layer of 12.7 mm Type X GB increased the fall-off time to over 60 min, improving the fire resistance duration from an average of 50 min with a single layer to 68 min with 2 layers. On the other hand, insulated floors experienced accelerated GB degradation in 1-layer GB floors. Reducing the resilient channel spacing from 610 mm to 406 mm increased the fall-off time by approximately 10 % for 2-layer GB floors. In single-layer GB floors, the onset of wood charring was around 10.7 min before the GB fell off, while in two-layer GB floors, the charring began 6.4 min after the face layer's fall-off. These findings extend beyond LW systems, offering potential solutions for mass timber (MT) structures where practical and economical GB encapsulation can facilitate fire safety in such structures. This study evaluates the GB protection design equations in international codes showing that these equations are conservative for single-layer GB but within the average range of the experimental results.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104455"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144338579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of wind and slope on the behavior of moving fire whirls","authors":"Mengyi Wang ,&nbsp;Jiao Lei","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104456","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104456","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper numerically investigates the effects of ambient wind and sloped terrains on the behavior of moving fire whirls using Fire Dynamics Simulator (6.7.6). Five configurations were designed, including small- and large-scale L-shaped fire sources and linear fire sources on flat terrain, as well as linear fire sources on leeward slope and canyon terrain. The movement trajectories, upper and lower critical wind speeds (<em>U</em>_<em>ec</em>) for the formation, and average movement speed (<em>V)</em> of fire whirls were analyzed under varying wind speeds (<em>U</em>) and slope angles (<em>θ</em> = 0°, 10°, 20°, and 30°). Except for the fire whirls in the small-scale L-shaped case on flat terrain, which exhibit a transition from downwind to upwind movement, fire whirls move unidirectionally along the fire line in other configurations. The interaction between the fire source and ambient wind was revealed through the synchronized evolution of tangential velocity fields. Two scaling correlations for <em>U</em>_<em>ec</em>, incorporating heat release rate, wind direction, and slope angle, were developed and confirmed by both experimental and numerical results from this study and the literature. The dimensionless movement speed was lower than the ambient wind speed in the L-shaped fire source configurations, but exceeded it in Brazil-type and leeward slope configurations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104456"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144321905","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Detailed characterizations of exhaust flow for a system of large-fire calorimeters","authors":"Rodney A. Bryant,&nbsp;Artur A. Chernovsky","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104453","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104453","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate exhaust flow monitoring is critical to achieving accurate measurements of heat release rate during large-fire experiments. Detailed characterizations of exhaust flow for a large-fire research facility were conducted using procedures from standard test methods for determining average flow in exhaust ducts. The results characterize the distribution of near-axial velocity, flow angle, and gas temperature and provide data to evaluate the impact of the fire and off-axis flow on the flow distribution. Average velocity computed from the flow distributions serves as a reference measurement for verifying the accuracy of flow monitoring devices permanently installed for routine operations. Flow calibration results agree with previous results, completing the goal of verifying the accuracy of the routine flow measurement using independent methods. This effort has established a benchmark for the accuracy of the facility's exhaust flow measurement. It has also provided additional evidence that in-situ calibration of the flow monitoring devices used for large-fire calorimetry is best practice to improve measurement accuracy. In general, the results provide a useful example to large fire laboratories for characterizing and calibrating their exhaust flow measurements to ultimately improve the accuracy of their calorimetry measurements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104453"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144291236","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CFD predictions of fire spread over wood cribs in large open-plan compartments: New insights","authors":"Chang Liu ,&nbsp;Xu Dai ,&nbsp;Xiyue M. Ming ,&nbsp;Stephen Welch","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104443","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104443","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A CFD-based numerical simulator, coupled with a multi-component pyrolysis model established for an isolated wood crib fire test, successfully predicts fire spread behaviours and the evolution in compartment fire conditions in a large-scale test with an extended, uniform fuel bed. Five distinct fire spread phases are identified, showing a gradual transition from 2D to 1D planar fire spread patterns. The kinetically-controlled pyrolysis model permits an analysis of the drivers of fire spread at the level of the individual wood sticks, in relation to the evolution of the heat transfer boundary conditions on each stick surface. The analysis shows linear correlations of burning rates with the incident heat fluxes at the fire's leading edge, and similar trends within the crib during the main travelling fire phase, but higher rates later in the fire when the effects of preheating become more dominant. Burning at the trailing edge is more decoupled from thermal exposures, perhaps due to the insulating effects of the char layer. The simulation also reveals complex behaviours inside the wood crib, with a progression from the initial fuel-controlled burning through the travelling fire phase where fire spread on the crib surface dominates, to the final rapid growth phase where in-depth burning rapidly catches up. Thus, we establish the value of linking the detailed heat transfer-controlled pyrolysis within individual wood sticks to the macroscopic behaviours of fire spread seen at compartment scale. Such models have potential for more general deployment as numerical simulators which can be used to explore the coupling of fire behaviours to design parameters.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104443"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144597554","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bayesian framework for non-destructive post-fire assessment of reinforced concrete beams using the incremental neutral axis position","authors":"Balša Jovanović ,&nbsp;Jasper Godeau ,&nbsp;Robby Caspeele ,&nbsp;Edwin Reynders ,&nbsp;Geert Lombert ,&nbsp;Ruben Van Coile","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104441","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104441","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Post-fire assessment in concrete structures is a complex challenge. This study addresses this challenge, by incorporating an innovative technique that employs Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) to measure strains at the top and the bottom of a beam and analyse them into a Bayesian inference framework. The FBGs allow to determine the position of the incremental neutral axis under bending deformation. The change of position of the incremental neutral axis relates to the degradation of concrete stiffness induced by fire, providing a key indicator of the structural condition of the whole member. The Bayesian methodology allows for a systematic handling of uncertainties, integrating prior knowledge with new data to improve the assessment's accuracy. By combining FBG-based strain sensing and advanced concrete modelling within a Bayesian framework, a novel approach is proposed to tackle the high uncertainties of post-fire assessments and deliver more reliable predictions than existing techniques. This offers a structured framework for interpreting the measured data and predicting the structural health of fire-affected concrete structures. To enable Bayesian inference, a numerical model is developed to calculate the incremental neutral axis position during and after fire. The model evaluates all the strain components, both reversible and irreversible and aggregates them to calculate the neutral axis position. The model's capabilities are validated using experimental data. The application of this methodology to a demonstration case shows its potential. The results show that employing the assessment technique can provide information on both the fire exposure, material properties of the member and its residual capacity. It highlights the feasibility of using FBG-based measurements for the post-fire assessment of concrete structures and underscores the value of Bayesian methods in managing the uncertainties inherent in such evaluations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104441"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144262395","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Repeat fire tests of upholstered furniture: Influence of experimental conditions on test-to-test variability","authors":"David Morrisset ,&nbsp;Jonathan Reep ,&nbsp;Ian Ojwang ,&nbsp;Rory M. Hadden ,&nbsp;Angus Law","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104442","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104442","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Experiments were conducted to illustrate the influence of experimental conditions on the statistical variation observed for furniture-scale calorimetry. Commercially available upholstered chairs were independently assessed using different ignition techniques, both with and without the presence of a wall corner. For each experiment, heat release rate (HRR), carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide yields, and heat fluxes from the fuel package were compared. Measurements made were used to link the burning behaviour to physical occurrences and to contextualize the variability between trials. The time resolved HRR and emission yields were found to be largely unaffected by the presence of a wall corner, while the radiant heat flux from the item was increased. Both the HRR and CO yield in time showed a dependence on ignition location. These differences were, however, contextualized through the use of key events that drive the burning process and global burning regimes. Further statistical analysis is conducted on specific metrics (e.g., peak HRR, total heat release, average species yields) to illustrate the similarity between these global metrics across each configuration. Statistical uncertainty is then quantified as a function of trials, providing a means to determine the gain in statistical confidence with increasing trials.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"156 ","pages":"Article 104442"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-06-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144597553","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}