Geothermal Energy最新文献

{"title":"Geologically informed machine learning for neutron porosity reconstruction from legacy well logs: implications for high-temperature reservoir thermal energy storage","authors":"Amr Talaat Tolba,&nbsp;Xheni Garipi,&nbsp;Florian Bauer,&nbsp;Thomas Kohl,&nbsp;Eva Schill","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00414-4","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00414-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>High-temperature thermal energy storage in subsurface reservoirs (HT-RTES) can help balance seasonal heat demand and supply by storing excess thermal energy in subsurface reservoirs. Mature hydrocarbon fields are promising storage targets because their reservoir properties are relatively well constrained; however, many legacy fields lack modern petrophysical data. In the Leopoldshafen oil field (northern Upper Rhine Graben), complete log coverage is limited to legacy self-potential (SP) and short-normal (SN) resistivity logs, whereas neutron porosity (NPHI) logs are available only in two wells (LH-5 A and Stutensee-1). Here, we present an integrated workflow to reconstruct NPHI in legacy wells using machine-learning methods. SP and SN logs from 24 boreholes were digitized, standardized, and cleaned to remove acquisition artefacts. Lithological classes were derived from SP–SN cross-plot clustering and used as a rock-physics-guided lithology flag. Five supervised algorithms were tested using two input configurations: Model 1, based on scaled SP and SN logs, and Model 2, which additionally included the lithology flag. Random Forest with Model 2 yielded the best performance in the training well Stutensee-1 and generalized well to the independent validation well LH-5 A. The main prediction errors occurred in gas-bearing intervals, but a lithology-specific post-processing correction markedly improved agreement with measured NPHI. The results show that lithological information substantially improves porosity prediction from sparse legacy logs and enables geologically consistent NPHI reconstruction for reservoir characterization at Leopoldshafen.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00414-4.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189105","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chemical interactions of a geothermal battery in the Malm reservoir of Munich","authors":"Thorsten Hörbrand,&nbsp;Fabian Nitschke,&nbsp;Kai Zosseder,&nbsp;Thomas Kohl","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00402-8","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00402-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The Malm reservoir in the South German Molasse Basin, characterized by its highly heterogeneous karstified carbonate structure, offers significant potential for geothermal energy production and seasonal heat storage. This study investigates the chemical interactions and risks associated with the operation of a geothermal battery, a subsurface heat storage system, in this reservoir. Using reactive transport simulations, we model the effects of injecting CO₂-inhibited thermal water at elevated temperatures (135 °C) during thermal charging and cooled thermal water (60 °C) during thermal discharging and compared the results to conventional geothermal operation. The study highlights the influence of heterogeneity, reactive surface area-to-volume ratios, and dolomitization on chemical interactions in the reservoir. Our results reveal that CO₂ inhibition effectively mitigates scaling risks and prevents formation damage near the storage well, while driving modest porosity increases through calcite dissolution near both storage and injection wells. Conversely, in fully dolomitic zones, minor porosity reductions are observed during thermal charging. Significant chemical changes are confined to the near-wellbore region. The chemical de-risking conducted in this study contribute to the feasibility of integrating geothermal batteries into renewable energy systems, potentially providing an economically viable solution to seasonal energy storage while supporting the decarbonization of district heating networks.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00402-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148927794","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coupled density–viscosity controls in low-temperature aquifer thermal energy storage under heterogeneous conditions","authors":"Guanyu Yuan,&nbsp;Peter Bayer","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00404-6","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00404-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Aquifer heterogeneity and temperature-dependent fluid properties are key controls on heat transport in aquifer thermal energy storage systems, yet their combined influence on performance reliability in low-temperature doublets remains insufficiently quantified. We evaluate a three-dimensional confined-aquifer model using 50 stochastic hydraulic-conductivity realizations, four density–viscosity coupling schemes, and warm-well injection temperatures ranging from 14 to 30 °C, while the cold-well injection temperature is fixed at 6 °C. Performance is assessed using thermal-recovery percentiles, uncertainty range, and a robustness index that integrates mean performance, variability, and a minimum acceptable recovery threshold. Simulations reveal a pronounced asymmetry between the two wells. Warm-well recovery remains relatively stable across the investigated temperature range, whereas cold-well recovery deteriorates strongly with increasing warm-well injection temperature. The 10th-percentile cold-well thermal recovery decreases from approximately 61% at 14 °C to below 25% at 30 °C, reaching as low as 4.2% when both density and viscosity are treated as temperature dependent, while the corresponding robustness index decreases from approximately 0.8 to below 0.34. This reliability loss is associated with preferential inter-well heat transport in unfavorable heterogeneous realizations, amplified by increased fluid mobility. Within the investigated LT-ATES range, with warm-well injection temperatures not exceeding 30 °C and a maximum warm–cold injection-temperature contrast of 24 °C, temperature-dependent density has only a minor influence on the selected performance indicators. In contrast, neglecting temperature-dependent viscosity can overestimate lower-percentile cold-well recovery and robustness. Regional groundwater flow further reduces recovery at both wells, while increasing well distance mainly improves cold-well reliability by limiting inter-well thermal interference. These results identify the cold well as the reliability-limiting component and show that median recovery alone can mask unfavorable heterogeneous conditions. Lower-percentile and robustness-based metrics therefore provide useful complementary information for reliable low-temperature ATES design in heterogeneous aquifers.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00404-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Correction: In-situ density and litho-constrained modeling of gravity data in the Los Humeros geothermal field, Mexico","authors":"Natalia Cornejo-Triviño,&nbsp;M. Leandra Weydt,&nbsp;Ingo Sass,&nbsp;Eva Schill","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00397-2","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00397-2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00397-2.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148615046","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Linking transmissibility and hydraulically active zones in the deep geothermal reservoir in Bavaria","authors":"Valerie Ernst,&nbsp;Felix Schölderle,&nbsp;Aurélia Crinière,&nbsp;Kai Zosseder","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00398-1","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00398-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous (‘Malm’-‘Purbeck’) reservoir of the North Alpine Foreland Basin in Bavaria represents one of Europe’s most important deep hydrothermal reservoirs for sustainable heat supply. Reservoir transmissibility shows strong spatial and vertical variability, which remains insufficiently characterized. In particular, the linkage between basin-scale transmissibility, vertically resolved hydraulically active zones, and their sequence stratigraphic context has not yet been systematically investigated. This study addresses this gap by integrating transmissibility of well tests, hydraulically active zones derived by flowmeter measurements, and sequence stratigraphy to provide a comprehensive characterisation of the reservoir. Transmissibility values were derived from pressure transient analyses of geothermal and research well tests, resulting in a harmonised dataset of 61 high-quality measurements. These data were used to generate a basin-wide probabilistic transmissibility spatial distribution using Empirical Bayesian Indicator Kriging. The resulting spatial distribution confirms a general decrease in transmissibility with increasing burial depth from north to south, while also revealing regional deviations from this trend. To resolve reservoir heterogeneity at the vertical scale, 14 integrative reservoir transmissibility values were converted to effective permeability for individual hydraulically active zones, based on flow contributions, zone location, and thickness derived from flowmeter measurements. This approach confirms a systematic decrease in permeability with depth. Variations from this trend are characterised by distinct regional reservoir types that were previously identified through multivariate statistical analyses. Hydraulically active zones were further positioned within a sequence-stratigraphic framework, enabling basin-scale correlation. The results demonstrate that hydraulically active zones occur predominantly within specific sequence-stratigraphic intervals, while other units contribute progressively less to flow. Although sequence-stratigraphy does not directly control permeability magnitude, it provides a consistent framework for describing the vertical distribution of flow zones. Overall, this study provides the first integrated basin-scale assessment linking transmissibility, hydraulically active zones, and sequence stratigraphy in the North Alpine Foreland Basin. The results significantly improve reservoir characterisation and form a robust basis for static and dynamic modelling within the BeM-TG Bayern project.</p><h3>Graphical abstract</h3><div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00398-1.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614663","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Performance comparison of thermal storage and release of coaxial closed-loop geothermal system with different well configurations","authors":"Wenbin Han,&nbsp;Yongzhi Lei,&nbsp;Wei Chen,&nbsp;Xujun Gao,&nbsp;Bo Ma,&nbsp;Jiaojiao Lv,&nbsp;Xianbiao Bu","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00394-5","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00394-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The issues of curtailment of renewable energy have become key bottlenecks restricting the large-scale development of renewable energy. Based on the coaxial closed-loop geothermal system and geological energy storage, this study constructed vertical, L-shaped, and inverted T-shaped well. Numerical simulation was used to explore the effects of different well types and operation modes on heat storage and extraction performance as well as the evolution law of formation temperature, while the economic and environmental benefits under various scenarios were quantitatively evaluated. The results show that increasing the number of horizontal side wells can effectively raise the outlet temperature by 10–16 K. The inverted T-shaped well has the highest heat release power but the lowest heat storage power, which is the opposite of the vertical well. The introduction of the heat storage stage brings about higher heat release power and a longer service life of the formation, and the increase in horizontal side wells improves the stability of heat release power. Under the condition of low energy storage temperature, the inverted T-shaped well achieves the highest economic and environmental benefits, whereas the vertical well demonstrates more prominent growth rates of economic and environmental benefits between the two operation modes.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00394-5.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148613674","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Soil Hg–As–Sb anomalies and associated trace elements as indicators of geothermal fluid migration","authors":"Yajuan Duan,&nbsp;Wanli Wang,&nbsp;Linxiao Xing,&nbsp;Wei Zhang,&nbsp;Guiling Wang,&nbsp;Jiayi Zhao,&nbsp;Suolang Ciren,&nbsp;Ying Liu","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00396-3","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00396-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Areas with high-temperature geothermal activity commonly exhibit anomalous enrichment of trace elements in near-surface soils. In this study, 167 soil samples were collected from the Yangbajing geothermal field, Tibet, to investigate the enrichment characteristics, spatial distribution, and indicative significance of six trace elements, namely Hg, As, Sb, Bi, Cu, and Mn. The results show that Hg, As, Sb, and Bi are enriched relative to the Upper Continental Crust baseline, whereas Cu and Mn show weak enrichment or relative depletion. Among these elements, Hg, As, and Sb display the most distinct anomaly patterns and are the most effective soil geochemical indicators of geothermal activity in the study area. The spatial distribution of trace-element anomalies shows clear element-specific zoning. Hg anomalies are mainly distributed in Zones I and II and are closely associated with high-temperature geothermal manifestations and fault-controlled upflow. In contrast, As and Sb anomalies are concentrated in Zones II and III, reflecting liquid-phase transport during geothermal fluid migration, cooling, mixing with shallow cold water, and subsequent adsorption or precipitation. Mn mainly occurs as a weak peripheral anomaly and is related to low-temperature discharge conditions, whereas Bi and Cu show localized enrichment associated with alteration minerals near the margins of geothermal fluid pathways. The migration and retention of these elements are jointly controlled by fault structures, temperature gradients, fluid mixing, and alteration mineralogy. Hg is preferentially transported in the vapor phase along deep faults and retained in kaolinite-rich alteration zones, while As, Sb, and Mn are mainly associated with liquid-phase geothermal fluids and are enriched in shallow or peripheral zones through cooling, adsorption, and precipitation. Comparison of anomaly distributions before and after geothermal development indicates that Hg, As, and Sb respond to changes in geothermal water level, discharge pathways, and fluid migration conditions. Overall, the coupled spatial patterns of Hg, As, Sb, Bi, Cu, and Mn provide a useful soil geochemical framework for identifying geothermal anomaly zones and evaluating the evolution of geothermal fluid pathways during exploitation and recovery. Hg is the most sensitive indicator of high-temperature vapor-phase upflow, As and Sb indicate medium-temperature liquid-phase migration, Mn provides supplementary evidence for low-temperature peripheral discharge, and Bi and Cu mainly reflect local alteration near geothermal fluid channels.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00396-3.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189683","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toward standardized protocols for geothermal potential assessment: a multi-scale, multi-physics workflow for deep resources","authors":"Gianluca Gola,&nbsp;Racine Basant,&nbsp;Valentina Cortassa,&nbsp;Antonio Galgaro,&nbsp;Thomas Nanni,&nbsp;Pawel Slupski,&nbsp;Magdala Tesauro,&nbsp;Adele Manzella","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00392-7","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00392-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Assessing geothermal systems requires a standardized approach, which actually remains underdeveloped. This study aims to overcome this lack, starting to review and discuss the most widely utilized methods and open-source tools for underground characterization and geothermal potential assessment at regional to continental scales, establishing a workflow applicable everywhere, whether with extensive subsurface data (brownfield) or less-explored or unexplored regions (greenfield). By integrating multi-scale geological, petrophysical, and geophysical constraints with robust thermal modelling strategies, this workflow offers a consistent framework for estimating geothermal potential and facilitating comparative analysis across different regions, in order to facilitate the geothermal exploitation feasibility analyses.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00392-7.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465101","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling of gas lift in liquid-dominated geothermal wells in Brawley field","authors":"Orkhan Khankishiyev,&nbsp;Hamid Karami","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00393-6","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00393-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Global electrical energy consumption continues to increase, creating a growing demand for sustainable energy sources. Geothermal energy represents a reliable renewable resource, but the economic performance of geothermal wells strongly depends on production efficiency. Artificial lift techniques such as gas lift have the potential to enhance production in geothermal wells. This study investigates the application of gas lift in liquid-dominated geothermal wells to increase the production rate of hot water/steam and improve the energy recovery. The study is conducted using field data from a geothermal well in the Brawley Geothermal Field, California, USA. A steady-state multiphase flow simulator is coupled with a surface process simulator to model the impact of gas lift on the geothermal well’s energy production. The model considers various parameters such as fluid properties, wellbore geometry, and operational conditions. Factors such as fluid temperature, flow rate, gas injection temperature, and thermal properties of the materials are incorporated into the model to accurately simulate thermal dynamics. Different gas types, including compressed air, methane, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, are analyzed for their suitability as gas lift agents under varying reservoir conditions. Application of gas lift results in up to an 80% increase in liquid production, with production rising from 110 lbm/s to about 200 lbm/s at a 1 MMSCFD gas injection rate. As a result, a substantial improvement is observed in power generation, with net electrical power increasing by 118%. Energy consumption of surface compressors and ORC system loads are considered in the analysis. Methane provides the highest lift efficiency, resulting in a net power increase of approximately 3.68 MWe (128%), while air and nitrogen show about 3.37 MWe (117%) increase. Carbon dioxide exhibits the lowest performance, with 3.21 MWe (112%) power increase, and introduces a significantly higher corrosion risk. The combination of multiphase flow and thermal modeling, along with comprehensive sensitivity analyses, provides a robust framework for evaluating gas lift applications in liquid-dominated geothermal wells. These findings highlight the potential of gas lift in the transition towards sustainable and renewable energy resources.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00393-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465444","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"In-situ density and litho-constrained modeling of gravity data in the Los Humeros geothermal field, Mexico","authors":"Natalia Cornejo-Triviño,&nbsp;M. Leandra,&nbsp; Weydt,&nbsp;Ingo Sass,&nbsp;Eva Schill","doi":"10.1186/s40517-026-00395-4","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s40517-026-00395-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>To improve the reliability of gravity-based geothermal reservoir characterization, this study evaluates density parameterization strategies for constraining gravity modeling and inversion in the complex volcanic setting of the Los Humeros Geothermal Field (LHGF), Mexico. We integrate gravity data, a 3-D geological model, and petrophysical measurements to evaluate three density parameterizations in the starting models: (C1) mean bulk density, (C2) compaction-corrected saturated bulk density, and (C3) a multimodal density distribution derived from lithologic sub-volumes. Forward modeling results show a consistently poor fit on the order of several mGal between observed and computed gravity data across all three parameterizations, characterized by a persistent negative bias in the computed gravity and only limited improvement despite optimized initial densities. Inverse modeling that accounts for compaction effects and saturated-porosity densities significantly reduces the misfit between observed and computed gravity, generally to below 1 mGal. A detailed misfit analysis reveals that our initial density values consistently underestimated optimal densities by 60–130 kg/m³. The misfit shows no systematic variation with depth but seems to be linked to lithology. The low salinity of reservoir fluids (≤ 4 g/L) suggests that salinity effects are negligible. The multi-modal density approach (C3) does not improve the fit and introduced skewness, likely due to volumetric estimates of lithologies derived from limited available data for the individual units. Inversion tests with varying probabilities of density and geometry changes revealed that for the LHGF a 70:30 ratio produced the most optimal model, confirming the overall consistency of the initial 3-D geological model with observed gravity data. Smaller density variations in pre-caldera units suggest greater homogeneity, while fault zones likely contribute to localized heterogeneity in the underlying units. Our results do not distinguish between the conventional and superheated sectors of the LHGF, highlighting that gravity anomalies in this volcanic system primarily reflect the geological structure rather than thermal or fluid characteristics. Finally, our methodology provides a practical framework for quantifying uncertainty of 3-D geological models.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":48643,"journal":{"name":"Geothermal Energy","volume":"14 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2026-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s40517-026-00395-4.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465445","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}