Biosensors-Basel最新文献

{"title":"Intelligent Distributed Optical Fiber Pressure Sensing for Dental Bite-Force Analysis.","authors":"Zhanerke Katrenova, Dauren Kussaiyn, Shakhrizat Alisherov, Wilfried Blanc, Alexandr Dostavalov, Amin Zollanvari, Carlo Molardi","doi":"10.3390/bios16090528","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090528","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Measuring bite force is essential for assessing the masticatory system and diagnosing oral disease. Existing measurement devices have low spatial resolution and susceptibility to electromagnetic interference. This paper presents a machine learning (ML)-assisted distributed fiber optic sensing system based on Scattering Level Multiplexing (SLMux) for high-resolution bite force analysis. Enhanced backscattered data were acquired through optical backscattered reflectometry from 88 sensing points along the dental arch. Measured data were reconstructed into a two-dimensional map of bite force and analyzed through an ML pipeline. Sector classification across 4 regions and weight prediction were processed by an end-to-end fine-tuned ResNet-18 Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and classical ML approaches. ResNet-18 is compared with Logistic Regression, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest, XGBoost (Extreme Gradient Boosting), Extra Trees, and k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) trained on handcrafted features. On sector classification, Logistic Regression achieved the best performance (98.71% accuracy). On the weight prediction task, formulated as a 12-class problem, the end-to-end ResNet-18 CNN substantially outperformed all classical models, reaching 51.28% accuracy and a mean absolute error of 78 g, versus 124 g for the best classical model. A regression-based ResNet-18 variant was also trained on the wavelength-shift and weight data, resulting in a mean absolute error of 62.6 g. The results indicate that integrating ML with distributed fiber-optic sensing has the potential to enhance dental diagnostics and treatment planning.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604705/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041560","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electric-Field-Assisted Enrichment and Electrochemical Detection of Gram-Positive Bacteria Using an FEM-Guided Interdigitated Electrode Biosensor.","authors":"Zeeshan, Naeem Iqbal, Jaeyoung Choi","doi":"10.3390/bios16090527","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090527","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Dielectrophoretic (DEP) enrichment is a powerful strategy to enhance bacterial capture efficiency and accelerate the response of electrochemical biosensors by actively concentrating target bioparticles at the sensing interface. In this study, a combined numerical-experimental framework is developed to rationally design a DEP-assisted electrochemical biosensor with improved bacterial capture and detection performance. A finite-element modeling (FEM) approach was used to model the coupled electric field, dielectrophoretic force, and particle-transport phenomena, providing a quantitative basis for comparing bacterial trapping efficiency across different interdigitated electrode geometries. The modeling reveals that a wave-shaped interdigitated electrode (W_IDE) generates extended high-field regions and an enlarged effective capture area, resulting in an improved bacterial capture efficiency of 19% compared to 12% for the conventional rectangular interdigitated electrodes (R_IDE) under positive DEP (pDEP) conditions. Based on these insights, the W_IDE was fabricated on a printed circuit board (PCB) substrate, modified with platinum-black (Pt-black) to increase electroactive surface area, and interfaced with a custom-built 16-channel portable potentiostat unit, enabling sequential impedance measurements. The developed biosensor was applied to pDEP-assisted impedance detection of <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> and <i>Micrococcus luteus</i> using vancomycin as the capture probe. The pDEP-assisted operation enabled rapid and highly sensitive detection down to 10 CFU/mL within 30 min with a wide linear range (10-10⁵ CFU/mL) in 0.1× PBS, outperforming passive detection (10²-10⁵ CFU/mL) for both <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> and <i>Micrococcus luteus</i>. In skim milk, however, the linear detection ranges shifted to 10²-10⁵ CFU/mL with pDEP-assisted detection and 10³-10⁵ CFU/mL under passive detection conditions. Overall, this work highlights the significance of combining FEM-optimized electrodes with DEP-driven enrichment to achieve improved bacterial capture, sensitivity, and robustness in electrochemical biosensors.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604522/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041507","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"New Concept of Intraoperative Fluorescence Diagnostics for Photodynamic Dosimetry of Tumors Using Chlorin-Based Photosensitizers.","authors":"Kanamat Efendiev, Arkadii Moskalev, Polina Alekseeva, Alexander Borodkin, Alexey Skobeltsin, Vladimir Makarov, Nina Kalyagina, Kirill Linkov, Aida Gilyadova, Olga Shpileva, Dinara Ilyasova, Tatiana Pisareva, Polina Kozlova, Aidai Rakhmanova, Artem Shiryaev, Victor Loschenov","doi":"10.3390/bios16090526","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090526","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Photodynamic therapy (PDT) with chlorin-based photosensitizers requires real-time monitoring of photosensitizer distribution and photobleaching to guide treatment, yet existing endoscopic fluorescence systems rely on short-wavelength (375-450 nm) excitation that is spectrally incompatible with 660 nm chlorin e6 (Ce6)-PDT, forcing interruption of therapy for diagnostic imaging. We developed VENERA-red-660, a dual-channel endoscopic system using a single 660 nm laser for simultaneous white-light and Ce6 fluorescence imaging (>670 nm detection) without interrupting irradiation. System sensitivity was validated on optical phantoms (Ce6 0.1-5.0 mg/L), and phototheranostics was performed in patients with basal cell carcinoma (<i>n</i> = 5), vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia grade III (<i>n</i> = 3), and peritoneal carcinomatosis (<i>n</i> = 10) using intravenous chlorin-based photosensitizer. Phantom testing showed a linear fluorescence response (R² = 0.998) down to the lowest tested concentration of 0.1 mg/L. Pre-PDT fluorescence contrast indices confirmed photosensitizer selectivity in all three tumor types, decreasing by 57%, 66%, and 60% after treatment, consistent with photobleaching; continuous intra-PDT monitoring confirmed progressive photobleaching kinetics, and confocal microscopy verified cellular-level Ce6 selectivity. Increased backscattered laser signal after PDT was consistent with treatment-induced changes in tissue optical properties. These pilot findings demonstrate that single-source phototheranostic monitoring is feasible across external and laparoscopic access routes, supporting further evaluation of VENERA-red-660 as a tool for intraoperative PDT dosimetry.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604748/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041267","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Evolution of Next-Generation Glucose Monitoring Systems: Developments from Conventional Diagnostics to Wearable and Continuous Sensing Platforms-A Narrative Review.","authors":"Sumedha Nitin Prabhu","doi":"10.3390/bios16090525","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090525","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>For the diagnosis of diabetes, glycemic control, treatment modification, and the avoidance of both acute and long-term consequences, accurate glucose monitoring is crucial. This study examines the development of glucose-monitoring systems, from traditional diagnostic tests and finger-prick electrochemical glucometers to wearable, continuous, minimally invasive, and non-invasive sensing platforms. Major invasive technologies, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic electrochemical sensors, microdialysis systems, hexokinase-based photometric assays, and field-effect transistor biosensors, are critically evaluated. The ability of minimally invasive methods to access interstitial fluid with less pain is discussed, including fluorescence probes, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, and microneedle arrays. Emerging non-invasive approaches are also evaluated. These include reverse iontophoresis, optical coherence tomography, infrared and photoacoustic spectroscopy, microwave resonators, smart contact lenses, and AI-assisted wearable systems. Finally, the review identifies major barriers related to sensitivity, selectivity, calibration, biofouling, biocompatibility, physiological variability, and clinical translation. It also outlines opportunities for intelligent, painless, and patient-centered glucose monitoring.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604579/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Portable Personal Glucometer-Based Immunoassay Platform for Horseradish Peroxidase-Related Biomarker Detection.","authors":"Jia-Yuan He, Ming-Shan Shuai, Hao Zhang, Dan-Ni Yang","doi":"10.3390/bios16090522","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090522","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Given the prevalent use of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) as an enzyme label in immunoassays, the practical importance of point-of-care testing for the portable identification of HRP-related biomarkers is evident. Accordingly, this study devised a portable immunoassay platform using a personal glucometer (PGM) to achieve rapid detection of HRP-related biomarkers. 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) and dopamine (DA) were used as signal-regulating substrates, and the assay principle was based on the HRP-mediated redox reaction. In the absence of HRP, TMB and DA directly reacted with [Fe(CN)₆]^3- on commercial glucose test strips, producing a strong PGM response. When HRP and H₂O₂ were present, HRP facilitated the oxidation of TMB to generate oxidized TMB, which further reacted with DA to produce oxidized products with weak reactivity toward [Fe(CN)₆]^3-, resulting in a decreased PGM signal. Conducting the quantitative assay involved measuring the HRP-dependent change in the PGM readout. Unlike many PGM immunoassays that rely on additional glucose-producing enzyme labels or amplified nanomaterial tags, the proposed method directly converts the signal of the conventional HRP label into a PGM-readable response. The sensing platform demonstrated a good linear response to HRP concentrations ranging from 156 to 625 ng/mL, with a low detection limit of 26 ng/mL. Interference experiments indicated good tolerance to the tested nonspecific proteins. The preliminary applicability of the platform was further evaluated by detecting cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and heparin-binding protein (HBP) in spiked serum samples, with recoveries ranging from 93.0% to 117.1% for cTnI and from 88.3% to 112.5% for HBP. In summary, the proposed platform provides a portable digital readout for HRP-linked immunoassays and reduces the dependence on dedicated readout instruments.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604267/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041309","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Preserving Sample, Interface, and Signal Fidelity in Wearable Sweat Electrolyte Monitoring During Exercise.","authors":"Qi Qi, Jinjie Duan, Yuning Lei, Shuang Zhou, Qian Liu, Qiong Wang, Nan Gao, Wenjuan Sun, Zhiming Zhan, Yuxiang Wu","doi":"10.3390/bios16090523","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090523","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Sweat electrolytes, including Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl^-, provide dynamic information on exercise-induced fluid and electrolyte regulation. Wearable ion-selective electrode (ISE) platforms now enable continuous, in situ monitoring of these ions, but performance in standard solutions does not guarantee reliable on-body data. During exercise, measurement distortion can arise before sweat contacts the electrode, at the electrochemical interface, and during signal acquisition and interpretation. This review synthesizes these coupled distortion pathways through a three-layer fidelity framework. Sample fidelity describes whether collected sweat preserves its temporal sequence, concentration state, and spatial origin during collection and microfluidic transport. Interface fidelity concerns stable ion recognition, ion-to-electron transduction, and reference-potential output in complex sweat matrices under deformation. Signal fidelity covers potential readout, transmission, calibration, temperature compensation, drift correction, and concentration estimation. By organizing recent work around these layers, we identify how sampling lag, residual-sweat mixing, evaporation, fouling, component leaching, interfacial drift, reference instability, and algorithmic overprocessing can propagate into biased electrolyte profiles. We argue that wearable sweat electrolyte monitoring should move from isolated electrode optimization toward end-to-end fidelity preservation and validation under realistic exercise conditions. This framework provides a practical basis for sensor design, performance reporting, and translation to sports, occupational safety, and digital health applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604067/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041427","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tumor-Aware Unsupervised Digital HER2 Immunohistochemistry via Dual Contrastive Learning.","authors":"Dong-Bum Kim, Jong-Ha Lee","doi":"10.3390/bios16090524","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090524","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Breast cancer is the most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer-related death among women worldwide. For accurate diagnosis, pathologists use immunohistochemical (IHC) staining for biomarkers such as human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) as an auxiliary test, in addition to hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining for evaluating tissue morphology. Traditional IHC staining is limited by high cost, time, and labor, with a shortage of pathologists to meet demand. In this work, we propose a digital HER2 IHC staining algorithm based on tumor masks. The proposed model builds on the Dual Contrastive Learning Generative Adversarial Network (DCLGAN), adding tumor mask loss, structural similarity index measure (SSIM) loss, and a modified identity loss that differentiates between active and inactive regions. Performance was quantitatively assessed by comparing HER2 scores using the Fréchet Inception Distance (FID) and a grade classification model. Compared to DCLGAN, the proposed model achieved a 27.2% decrease in FID and a 2.57% increase in soft accuracy. Visual evaluation further showed that it prevents yellow discoloration and suppresses nonspecific region staining seen in unsupervised learning. These results indicate that effective learning is achievable even with limited and unaligned data, thereby accelerating digital pathology workflows.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604836/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Wearable Sweat Biosensors for Inflammatory Biomarkers (CRP, IL-6 and TNF-α): A Systematic Review of Analytical and Clinical Evidence.","authors":"Raghad S Alsharidah, Razique Anwer, Maysoon Anwar Abdelhamid, Eman Amer Alanazi, Farah Mfwadh Alanazi, Haneen Fahaid Alanazi, Jumanah Naif Alotaibi, Lama Abdulaziz Alshathri, Renad Ali Alshehri, Rania Alsuhibani, Raghad H Majrashi","doi":"10.3390/bios16090521","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090521","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Background</i>: Wearable sweat biosensors have emerged as a promising non-invasive approach for monitoring inflammatory biomarkers, offering an alternative to repeated blood sampling. This systematic review evaluated the current evidence on the detection of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in sweat for infection and inflammatory disease monitoring. <i>Methods</i>: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines (PROSPERO: CRD420261371221), PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar were searched through April 2026. Human studies measuring CRP, IL-6, or TNF-α in sweat using wearable or biosensor-based platforms were included. Risk of bias and certainty of evidence were assessed using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale/JBI checklist and GRADE. <i>Results</i>: Thirteen studies (2020-2025, 5-80 participants) were included. CRP showed the most consistent sweat-serum agreement (r = 0.844) and good diagnostic performance in one inflammatory bowel disease cohort (AUC = 0.845). TNF-α demonstrated the highest diagnostic accuracy in a single longitudinal study (AUC = 0.962), whereas IL-6 showed moderate sweat-serum correlations (R² = 0.60-0.72) but limited diagnostic discrimination. IL-6 and TNF-α were more consistently detected in passively collected eccrine sweat, although IL-6 was also successfully measured following pilocarpine iontophoresis in one study. Most studies had moderate methodological quality. <i>Conclusions</i>: Sweat-based measurement of CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α is analytically feasible for non-invasive inflammatory biomarker monitoring. However, current evidence remains limited by small, heterogeneous studies, underscoring the need for standardized protocols and larger prospective clinical validation.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604438/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling and Sensitivity Analysis of GaN HEMT Biosensor.","authors":"Ashkhen Yesayan, Jean-Michel Sallese","doi":"10.3390/bios16090520","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090520","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Gallium nitride (GaN) high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) biosensors have recently emerged as promising platforms for highly sensitive and label-free detection of biomolecules. Their exceptional electrical properties, including high carrier mobility, together with the wide bandgap and strong chemical bonds of GaN materials, provide excellent stability under high temperatures, ionizing radiation, and chemically harsh environments. Despite significant experimental progress, comprehensive analytical models capable of linking biomolecular recognition events to the electrical response of GaN biosensors remain limited. This work presents a physics-based, design-oriented analytical modeling framework for AlGaN/GaN HEMT biosensors. The model incorporates biomolecular binding kinetics, the dielectric properties of the hybrid system, and electrostatic coupling to the transistor channel conductivity. Numerical simulations are performed using COMSOL Multiphysics to validate the analytical model. The developed framework provides physical insight into the mechanisms governing biosensor operation and offers practical guidelines for the optimization and comparative assessment of HEMT/MIS-HEMT biosensor architectures.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604550/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041244","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Design and Evaluation of Multi-Electrode Configurations for Transcutaneous Frontal Nerve Activation.","authors":"Enver Salkim","doi":"10.3390/bios16090519","DOIUrl":"10.3390/bios16090519","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Conventional migraine treatments often come with undesirable side effects. One alternative approach uses a wearable neuromodulation device that stimulates nerves in the forehead. However, clinical studies have reported modest effectiveness, and some users experience discomfort or pain. These issues may be associated with electrode design, which can require higher stimulation currents to achieve activation. This study aims to evaluate the stimulation currents required by the migraine neuromodulator device and to explore whether modifying electrode arrangement can lower these current levels, which may potentially improve patient comfort and treatment compliance. To accomplish this, a hybrid computational framework combining a 3D volume conductor model with biophysical nerve dynamics was deployed. To capture population diversity, forty distinct nerve models were generated based on statistical variations in trajectory paths and evaluated across five electrode array configurations. The findings show that the proposed electrode array (EA) and neuroanatomical variability significantly influence stimulation thresholds. Simulations of the Cefaly electrode produced current thresholds ranging from 9 mA to 30 mA across the models. When the proposed EA was applied by aligning with nerve pathways, the required currents dropped substantially, ranging from 0.5 mA to 9 mA. Additionally, this design reduced calculated peak spatial current density across superficial tissue layers-a factor associated with cutaneous discomfort-which may support improved tolerance and long-term treatment adherence in clinical practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":48608,"journal":{"name":"Biosensors-Basel","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":6.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604540/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149041506","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}