Learning and Instruction最新文献

{"title":"A complex dynamical system approach to student engagement","authors":"Shan Li ,&nbsp;Tingting Wang ,&nbsp;Juan Zheng ,&nbsp;Susanne P. Lajoie","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102120","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102120","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Multimodal data analysis has been approached through three main avenues: (1) joint effect approach, (2) triangulation approach, and (3) separate latent construct approach. While these approaches have advanced our understanding of the learning process, they fail to capture its dynamic and emergent nature.</div></div><div><h3>Aim</h3><div>This study examines multimodal data through the lens of complex dynamical system (CDS) approach. We investigated whether a CDS approach could provide unique insights into predicting and understanding cognitive engagement during learning.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>The participants comprised 61 third-year medical students (47.5 % females).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>From a CDS perspective, we analyzed eye gaze, head pose, and facial action units of participants engaged in an interactive learning environment.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>We found that specific parameters of eye gaze, head pose, and facial expressions significantly predicted cognitive engagement levels. Network density was also identified as a significant predictor of cognitive engagement. Notably, network density explained a greater proportion of the variation in cognitive engagement compared to any other individual variable considered. Additionally, we found that students in the low engagement group demonstrated consistently weak but stable interconnections among behavioral indicators, while the high engagement group displayed tightly clustered interaction patterns among variables.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These findings highlight the added value of a CDS approach for modeling the dynamic complexity of cognitive engagement. This study represents a significant step in rethinking the research agenda in multimodal learning analytics. Methodologically, this study demonstrates the potential of CDS-based analytical techniques for gaining insights into physiological and psychological processes underlying engagement and learning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"98 ","pages":"Article 102120"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143683264","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How does interest in a course interact with course learning?","authors":"Luke K. Fryer ,&nbsp;Alex Shum ,&nbsp;Ronnel B. King ,&nbsp;Peter Lau","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102106","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102106","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The present study modeled how students' interest in a course of study changes and how those changes fit into their broader course experiences.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>The present study modelled the relationship between students' changing (latent growth curve) course interest, their readiness for learning (prior knowledge and interest), ongoing learning experiences (formative assessments) and important outcomes (post-course knowledge, self-efficacy, and interest).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Postgraduate students (<em>n</em> = 415) completed short surveys and formative assessments on six occasions across four weeks. Data were analysed within a latent structural equation model inclusive of a latent growth curve (course interest).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Modelling pointed to the expected strong positive relationship between initial and growing course interest for latent outcomes (post interest and self-efficacy: <em>β</em> = .26-.44). At the same time, modelling revealed counterintuitive implications of prior knowledge for initial course interest (<em>β</em> = -.12) and pre-class learning formative assessment for course interest slope (<em>β</em> = −.21).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Course interest (initial and growing) is important for course outcomes, but it might be exceptionally sensitive to prior knowledge and initial learning fit based on early learning experiences.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"98 ","pages":"Article 102106"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143683263","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Trait resilience against classroom discrimination: Exploring protective effects on immigrant students’ academic achievement across 59 economies","authors":"Qinhui Huang ,&nbsp;Leifeng Xiao ,&nbsp;Lijun Fan ,&nbsp;Alan C.K. Cheung","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102114","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102114","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The adaptation of immigrant students is crucial for addressing societal development challenges, including potential demographic shifts. While research has explored various risk, promotive and protective factors impacting these students, there is a need for a deeper understanding of how these factors interact and influence their adaptation.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study aimed to examine the protective effect of trait resilience that helps immigrant students against discriminatory school climate and compare the difference with non-immigrant students across 59 economies.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Using the PISA 2018 database, 375,680 students from 15,147 schools in 59 economies were selected. A two-level multilevel model was utilized to explore the potential moderated effect of trait resilience against discriminatory school climate for both immigrant and non-immigrant students.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>A discriminatory school climate contributed to students' negative academic achievement, with the detrimental impact being significantly more pronounced for second-generation immigrant students. Trait resilience, however, played a promotive role in enhancing academic performance for both immigrant and non-immigrant students. Furthermore, trait resilience had a protective effect, mitigating the negative effect of discrimination on students’ academic achievement. Specifically, the protective effect of trait resilience against the negative impact of severe discrimination was stronger for first- and second-generation immigrants than their ethnic majority peers.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Our findings underscore the protective role of trait resilience for immigrant students facing discrimination. It is essential for educational policies and programs to both fight discrimination and foster resilience, particularly for immigrant students, to promote equity and academic success in diverse school environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102114"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143682019","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Unveiling passive cross-modal reactivation and validation processes in the processing of multimedia material","authors":"Anne Schüler ,&nbsp;Pauline Frick","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102117","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102117","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>During reading, a passive reactivation process reactivates information from the discourse context, while a passive validation checks the consistency between reactivated and actual information.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>Two pre-registered online studies examined whether passive cross-modal reactivation and validation processes occur during the processing of multimedia materials (text combined with pictures).</div></div><div><h3>Samples</h3><div>Participants were recruited via Clickworker (Experiment 1: <em>N</em> = 251; Experiment 2: <em>N</em> = 266).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We applied the epistemic Stroop paradigm (Richter et al., 2009), which utilizes automatic validation mechanisms that trigger positive or negative response tendencies. These tendencies can interfere with an unrelated task, requiring an opposite response. Participants were shown matching (valid) or mismatching (invalid) text-picture stimuli, with the text and picture components presented sequentially, interrupted by a calculation task, making reactivation necessary. Following each stimulus, participants performed an unrelated probe-word task responding to the words \"right\" or \"wrong\". Dependent variables were reaction time and error rates in the probe-word task. Experiment 1 used one-sentence-picture stimuli, while Experiment 2 used longer text segments with pictures.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>In both experiments, linear mixed-effects models revealed interactions between validity (valid vs. invalid stimulus) and probe word (right vs. wrong) for reaction times and error rates. Post-hoc analyses showed longer reaction times or higher error rates when participants encountered invalid stimuli before responding to the probe word “right”.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>In this study, passive cross-modal reactivation and validation processes could be demonstrated together for the first time in multimedia processing. Implications for understanding information processing in multimedia contexts are discussed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102117"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143681950","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Joint developmental trajectories of academic achievement, internalizing and externalizing symptoms in childhood: Roles of maladaptive parenting and bullying victimization","authors":"Xiaofei Li ,&nbsp;Xue Gong ,&nbsp;Jianhua Zhou","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102115","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102115","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Co-occurring low academic achievement and high psychopathological symptoms during childhood are associated with adverse long-term outcomes. However, evidence regarding their longitudinal relations remains inconclusive, and subgroup differences in their joint developmental processes are underexplored.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study investigated the joint developmental trajectories of academic achievement, internalizing and externalizing symptoms in childhood, and how risk factors, including maladaptive parenting and bullying victimization, related to trajectory memberships.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>The study included 3132 Chinese elementary school students (45.9 % girls; <em>M</em>_age = 9.88 years, <em>SD</em> = 0.72 at Time 1) and their parents.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>Data were collected over two years in five waves at six-month intervals. A parallel-process latent class growth model was employed to identify distinct developmental trajectories.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Six distinct developmental trajectories were identified: (1) Erosion effect-highest risk group (2.6 %), (2) Optimal group (49.7 %), (3) Average group (22.0 %), (4) Erosion effect-high risk group (10.4 %), (5) Vulnerable achievers-high externalizing group (8.8 %), and (6) Vulnerable achievers-high internalizing group (6.5 %). Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that maladaptive parenting (psychological control and harsh punitive control) and two subtypes of bullying victimization (verbal and relational, but not physical victimization) significantly increased the risk of adverse co-development of academic performance and psychopathological symptoms.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>These findings demonstrate significant heterogeneity in the joint developmental trajectories of academic performance and psychopathological symptoms. The identified roles of maladaptive parenting and bullying victimization offer valuable insights for developing targeted prevention strategies to reduce adverse co-developmental outcomes among elementary school students.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102115"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143636746","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A movement and story-telling intervention improves language and fundamental movement skills and is feasible for delivery by teachers in the first year of school","authors":"Anna J. Cunningham ,&nbsp;Violeta Baikousi ,&nbsp;Emma Eyre ,&nbsp;Michael Duncan ,&nbsp;Matteo Crotti ,&nbsp;Ricardo Martins ,&nbsp;Clare Wood","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102110","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102110","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Language development is a critical precursor to written language skills and subsequent access to the curriculum, while basic movement skills are a prerequisite to later engagement with activity and sport. However, there is lack of evidence about effective programmes that address both motor and language skills that are practical and manageable for educators in primary school.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study tested the effectiveness and implementation feasibility of MAST (Movement and Story-Telling); a 12-week, whole-class combined movement and story-telling approach, when delivered by teachers in the first year of school.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Using a cluster-randomised control design, 214 four-to-five-year-old children were assessed across nine primary schools (5 receiving MAST, 4 control) at pre- and post-test for their language, fundamental movement skills and self-regulation (an ability that underlies both skills). Also, the five teachers implementing MAST were interviewed and observed delivering the programme.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>There was a significant effect of MAST on language (d = 0.2) and fundamental movement skills (d = 0.65), but not effect on self-regulation. Implementation fidelity was good with four out of five schools consistently delivering all key components of MAST. Thematic analysis of interviews identified barriers to implementation, as well as factors for success.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>MAST proved feasible for delivery by teachers in primary schools, resulting in significant improvements to language and movement skills. Implications include the need to upskill early years educators and to educate school management on the importance of teaching movement and language skills to young children.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102110"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620841","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The growth trajectories of oral and silent word reading fluency before and after COVID-19","authors":"George K. Georgiou ,&nbsp;Tomohiro Inoue ,&nbsp;Michael McMann ,&nbsp;Scott McKenzie ,&nbsp;Rauno Parrila","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102105","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102105","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>We examined the growth of word-reading fluency (oral and silent) in two cohorts of English-speaking Canadian children in Grades 1 to 4 and whether the COVID-19 pandemic had an effect on it.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>The first cohort comprised 997 children (49% females) who were in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 in September 2018. The second cohort comprised 797 children (48% females) who were in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 in September 2020. Each cohort was assessed five times on a measure of oral word-reading fluency (Test of Sight Word Reading Efficiency) and on a measure of silent word-reading fluency (Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Results of multigroup latent basis growth modeling showed that whereas oral word-reading fluency followed decelerating growth from Grades 1 to 4, silent word-reading fluency showed slower growth in Grade 1 and prolonged growth thereafter. Our results further showed that although children's initial performance levels were slightly lower after the school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, their growth in both oral and silent word-reading fluency was generally faster after the schools reopened, catching up with the pre-pandemic levels of children's reading fluency.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>These findings suggest that silent and oral word-reading fluency may differ not only in their predictors (as shown in previous studies), but also in their growth trajectories. COVID-19 impacted not only the initial performance levels, but also the growth trajectories in oral and silent word-reading fluency.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102105"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143552828","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Strategies for regulating achievement emotions: Conceptualization and relations with university students’ emotions, well-being, and health","authors":"Kristina Stockinger ,&nbsp;Markus Dresel ,&nbsp;Herbert W. Marsh ,&nbsp;Reinhard Pekrun","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102089","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102089","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Students’ achievement emotions profoundly influence their learning, academic performance, well-being, and educational trajectories. Understanding how students regulate these emotions is crucial for their academic flourishing.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We examined students’ strategies for regulating three common achievement emotions (enjoyment, anxiety, boredom), and how these strategies relate to emotions, academic well-being, health problems, and achievement-related outcomes.</div></div><div><h3>Theoretical framework</h3><div>Our theoretical model of emotion regulation strategies is derived from the control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006) and Harley et al.’s (2019) model of emotion regulation in achievement settings. It considers six groups of strategies: situation selection, social support, reappraisal, expression, suppression, and competence development.</div></div><div><h3>Samples</h3><div>Participants included 350 (Study 1; Germany), 359 (Study 2; England), and 200 (Study 3; Germany) university students.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Studies 1 and 2 were cross-sectional. Study 3 employed a five-wave prospective design and focused on course-specific achievement emotion regulation over one semester. We used a newly developed context- and emotion-specific measure of the six strategies targeting enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom (Regulation of Achievement Emotions Questionnaire, RAEQ).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Strategies were linked to students’ emotions, well-being, health, and academic achievement (perceived success, Studies 1 and 2; end-of-semester test scores, Study 3) across all three studies. Furthermore, achievement emotion regulation strategies were related to, but distinct from, general emotion regulation strategies.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Findings highlight the importance of students’ regulation of both positive and negative emotions, suggest that emotion regulation is context-specific, and imply that reappraisal and competence development are especially adaptive. We discuss implications for educational practice and future research.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"98 ","pages":"Article 102089"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143768514","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Parents’ spatial talk predicts toddlers’ spatial language gains","authors":"Danielle S. Fox ,&nbsp;Andrew Ribner ,&nbsp;Joei Camarote ,&nbsp;Elizabeth Vortuba-Drzal ,&nbsp;Heather J. Bachman ,&nbsp;Melissa E. Libertus","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102107","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102107","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Young children who hear more frequent spatial language demonstrate better spatial skills (Casasola et al., 2020). Additionally, play contexts can influence how much spatial language parents use (Ferrara et al., 2011). However, most studies have focused on preschoolers and have not specifically analyzed how different types of spatial language within various play contexts relate to outcomes.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>The present study investigates how parents' use of spatial relational language (e.g., \"next to,\" \"below\") and other spatial language during spatial and non-spatial play predicts toddlers’ concurrent and later verbal and non-verbal spatial skills.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>The study involved 169 socio-economically diverse 2-year-olds and their parents from the Northeastern United States.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Dyads completed three structured play activities, including a spatial puzzle task and two non-spatial activities. At age 2 and 3, children completed modified versions of the Point-to-Spatial-Relation task (Casasola et al., 2020) and the Test of Spatial Assembly (Verdine et al., 2014).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Parents' use of spatial relational language during the puzzle task predicted better performance on the Point-to-Spatial-Relation task concurrently at age 2 (β = .24, p = .02) and one year later at age 3 (β = .19, p = .04). Parents' use of other spatial language and spatial relational language during non-spatial activities was not associated with children's spatial skills regardless of age.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Frequent exposure to spatial relational language within a spatial play context supports toddlers' concurrent and later comprehension of spatial terms, highlighting the importance of providing specific learning opportunities that promote understanding of spatial language.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102107"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143552829","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Do worked examples boost the spacing effect on lasting learning?","authors":"Julia Krauspe ,&nbsp;Mirjam Ebersbach ,&nbsp;Anne Ludwig,&nbsp;Florian Scharf","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102103","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102103","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The acquisition of lasting knowledge that is accessible for a long time is an important educational goal. Spacing the learning or practice phase across multiple sessions fosters lasting learning, but the effect is less robust for complex material.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We examined whether the meaningful elaboration of the learning material, evoked by means of self-explaining worked examples, contributes to a more robust spacing effect concerning the lasting learning in mathematics.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were fourth graders (<em>N</em> = 213).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Children received a formal instruction to long multiplication in school. Thereafter, they practiced the procedure either in a <em>massed</em> or a <em>spaced</em> manner, and either by <em>pure problem solving</em> or by additionally self-explaining <em>worked examples</em> in their regular math lessons. Time on task was held constant in all conditions. In a delayed test after eight weeks, children's procedural and conceptual knowledge was assessed. Their general math ability and their specific prior knowledge served as control variables.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Contrary to our expectations, there was neither a main effect of worked examples nor of spacing, and no interaction emerged between the two variables. Exploratory analyses revealed the same results concerning the forgetting rate between the last practice set and the test. These null effects were confirmed by Bayesian analyses. Only children's general math ability and their prior knowledge predicted their test performance.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The results suggest that the spacing effect in mathematics does not emerge reliably, even not when stimulated by worked examples. Further research on potential boundary conditions is required.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"97 ","pages":"Article 102103"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-03-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143534920","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}