Learning and Instruction最新文献

{"title":"Scaffolding of learning activities: Aptitude-treatment-interaction effects in math?","authors":"Sarah I. Hofer ,&nbsp;Frank Reinhold","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102177","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102177","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Due to differences in learners' resources in specific learning situations, they may not profit equally from learning activities such as task practice or learning with analogies. Scaffolds can help to adapt learning activities to learners' needs.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We want to answer the question who benefits from what scaffold when learning about fractions on the number line in digitally-enriched mathematics instruction in the classroom.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were 332 6th-Graders.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Dynamic visualizations were used as <em>information-processing scaffold</em> when learning with analogies. During repeated practice, adaptive task difficulty was implemented as <em>motivational scaffold</em> and individualized explanations based on typical mistakes were offered as <em>information scaffold</em>. Students were randomly assigned to one of the scaffold conditions or a control group without scaffolds. As characteristics potentially affecting learning processes during learning activities, we assessed prior knowledge, sustained attention, general reasoning, visual-spatial abilities as well as interest and self-concept in mathematics. These learner characteristics were included as predictors in Generalized Linear Mixed Models, together with the experimental conditions. Due to the nature of the multi-track school system in Germany, advanced placement school (APS; <em>Gymnasium</em>) students and vocational school (VS; <em>Mittelschule</em>) students were considered separately.</div></div><div><h3>Results and conclusion</h3><div>For APS students, the different scaffolds yielded minimal effects. For VS students, dynamic visualizations could compensate for lower general reasoning and visual-spatial ability when learning with analogies and adaptive task difficulty seemed to successfully counteract lower interest during practice. Instruction can be individualized based on the conditioning of scaffolds on the specific mechanisms underlying different learning activities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102177"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144597018","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhancing student academic performance in middle school classrooms by fostering engagement motivation through intelligent assessment of teacher praise emotional intensity","authors":"Zengzhao Chen ,&nbsp;Debo Ren ,&nbsp;Zhifeng Wang ,&nbsp;Lu Gao ,&nbsp;Yawen Shi ,&nbsp;Hai Liu ,&nbsp;Tonglian Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102185","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102185","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Teacher praise is a powerful tool for enhancing student learning and managing behavioral challenges. However, existing methods for assessing teacher praise are overly simplistic, typically only relying on the frequency of behavioral special praise (BSP) to judge its effectiveness. Teacher praise serves as a means of conveying emotion, we categorized it according to emotional intensity. This approach seeks to examine how enhancing the intensity of praise influences student learning.</div></div><div><h3>Aimed</h3><div>The core research objectives are: (1) to explore the classification of praise intensity; (2) to investigate whether the GPT tool can effectively influence teachers' praise intensity; and (3) to examine the direct and indirect effects of changes in praise intensity on student academic performance.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>This study developed a praise intensity recognition assistant using GPT-3.5. A praise dataset was constructed and fine-tuned, achieving an accuracy of 95 %, demonstrating effective recognition. However, detecting and enhancing praise intensity remains a challenge.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>20 teachers and 523 students participated in an intervention experiment focusing on praise intensity. Over a three-month period, we used this tool to observe whether improvements in teacher praise intensity affected student academic performance and learning behavior.</div></div><div><h3>Result</h3><div>Findings revealed that while student academic performance showed no significant improvement, student engagement notably increased.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Student engagement acted as a mediator, indicating an indirect link between teacher praise intensity and academic performance. This study underscores the indirect influence of enhanced praise intensity facilitated by GPT, highlighting the crucial role of student engagement in this process.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102185"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-07-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144588815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A red button does it all: A red button nudges students to close their knowledge gaps in an intelligent tutoring system","authors":"Markus Wolfgang Hermann Spitzer ,&nbsp;Korbinian Moeller ,&nbsp;Eileen Richter ,&nbsp;Luisa Frede ,&nbsp;Lisa Bardach","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102181","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102181","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) often adaptively provide students with additional learning materials to close knowledge gaps automatically recognized by the system. In addition, students may be nudged with notification badges to close their knowledge gaps.</div></div><div><h3>Aim</h3><div>This study evaluated the effectiveness of implementing a notification badge (small red button) reminding students to close their knowledge gaps. We also investigated the association between closing knowledge gaps and performance while controlling for other relevant factors (e.g., usage behavior, system features, and teachers’ assignment types).</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>We considered 105,081 students (in 6,668 classes working on ∼25 million problems) who used an ITS for learning mathematics.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We employed hierarchical linear regression analysis to evaluate whether students were more likely to close their knowledge gaps in a period in which notification badges were implemented in the ITS, as compared to a period without notification badges. Moreover, we used psychological network analysis and hierarchical linear regression analysis to evaluate whether closing knowledge gaps was associated with students’ performance relative to other relevant factors.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Students closed 28 % of their knowledge gaps when the red button notification badge nudged them, but only 5 % when there was no red button. Closing knowledge gaps predicted better student performance and was a more important predictor than students' usage behavior, other system features, and teachers’ assignment types.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Our study highlights the relevance of nudges within ITS for closing knowledge gaps and shows that closing knowledge gaps is linked to students’ performance.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102181"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144581173","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From cradle to classroom: Infant-directed speech facilitates word learning in adults learning English as a foreign language","authors":"Min Zhu ,&nbsp;Fei Chen ,&nbsp;Longjie Dong ,&nbsp;Yuxiao Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102183","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102183","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>It is suggested that infants acquire novel words better from infant-directed speech (IDS) compared to adult-directed speech (ADS). However, it remains unclear whether this applies to adults who are learning a second language (L2).</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study investigated the potential benefits of IDS on English word recognition by Mandarin-speaking adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL).</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Ninety-six participants were pseudo-randomly assigned to IDS, ADS, or lengthened speech (LS) training groups.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>This study utilized a repeated-measures design in which all participants underwent an eight-session training program over a two-week period. Word recognition tasks were administered at four time points: pre-test, mid-test, post-test, and a delayed test conducted two weeks later. To account for individual differences, participants also completed assessments of working memory (digit span test) and English vocabulary size (LexTALE). Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMMs).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>IDS group performed better than ADS and LS groups in the mid-test, post-test. More importantly, unlike the other two approaches, the efficacy of IDS on L2 word learning remained in the delayed-test. Additionally, correlation analyses conducted within the IDS group identified a positive correlation between learning gains and elevated pitch values for four-syllable words among the three acoustic exaggerations (pitch, duration, vowel).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These findings suggest that IDS features, particularly exaggerated pitch, facilitate word learning in adult L2 learners.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102183"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-07-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144572068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A strength-based approach to exploring pre-school children’s spatial language and patterning skills","authors":"Danielle Harris,&nbsp;Ilyse Resnick,&nbsp;Tom Lowrie","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102180","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102180","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Deficits in spatial language and patterning skills are disproportionately represented amongst marginalized groups. However, ‘deficit models’ do not consider children's enactment of skills within contexts other than traditional test-based assessment. It is possible that assessment context (e.g., test-based versus game-based) influences the manifestation of these skills.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>To compare the spatial language and patterning skills of children in game-based and test-based assessment contexts drawn from different geographic locations and levels of socio-economic advantage (SEA).</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Preschool children (Mean age = 4 years, 11 months, S.D. = 6 months) from Metropolitan Cities, Regional Cities, and Rural Areas (<em>N</em> = 402 for spatial language, <em>N =</em> 439 for patterning).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Performance was compared on digital measures of spatial language and spatial patterning through game-based and test-based assessment.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Significant main effects were found for performance on language and patterning test-based assessments for Geography and SEA, as well as significant interactions. Children from rural areas outperformed children from metropolitan and regional cities, and children from High SEA communities outperformed children from Low SEA communities on these measures. The effects of SEA on test-based assessment were most pronounced in city samples. There were no significant effects for SEA or Geography on game-based assessment.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The results highlight the impact of assessment context on measurement of spatial language and patterning skills for marginalized students. Current measures may not entirely capture children's capabilities. Furthermore, the superior spatial skills found amongst children from rural communities could be capitalized upon to support performance in traditional education settings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102180"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144501918","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Belief biases in integrated representations of conflicting documents: Moderating effects of embedded sources and justification beliefs","authors":"Mohammad N. Karimi ,&nbsp;Tobias Richter","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102171","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102171","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Given the documented biasing effect of prior beliefs on the mental representations of controversial information (text-belief consistency effect), it is important to identify conditions that reduce this effect.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>In this study, we investigated whether readers' prior beliefs bias their situation models of conflicting information as measured through an integrated argumentation task. Based on the literature on sourcing and the Two-Step Model of Validation, we also examined whether embedded citation style (whether and how embedded sources are incorporated in documents) and beliefs regarding justification for knowing by authority reduce belief biases in readers’ situation models.</div></div><div><h3>Sample and method</h3><div>The study was based on 2 (text stance: Pro-Stance vs. Contra-Stance; varied within-subjects) × 3 (embedded citation style: Author-Prominent vs. Information-Prominent vs. Author-Absent; varied between-subjects) a mixed design. The participants included English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students (<em>N</em> = 92).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Consistent with previous evidence, readers' situation models were biased towards their beliefs. Furthermore, embedded sources moderated prior beliefs effects on the integrated cognitive representations of the information. Participants constructed more balanced mental representations of documents that included author-prominent followed by information-prominent embedded sources. Beliefs about justification for knowing by authority were also found to interact with readers’ prior beliefs and embedded citation style to moderate belief biases in reading controversial information.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These results support the assumption of the Two-Step Model of Validation that source information and knowledge beliefs may be crucial for whether readers engage in elaborative processes that lead to a more balanced representation of controversial information.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102171"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144365109","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The impact of executive functions on English academic performance among Chinese primary school students: A network analysis","authors":"Chao Ma ,&nbsp;Minyuan Song ,&nbsp;Xin Zhao","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102174","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102174","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>In China, English is mandatory for all 8–9 year olds, and executive function is a key predictor of English achievement. However, prior studies have overlooked either the multidimensionality of English assessments or the component nature of executive function, resulting in inconsistent findings.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study simultaneously examines the relationships between executive function components (inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility) and English academic performance (listening, reading, writing), aiming to resolve literature controversies and establish a foundation for further causal exploration.</div></div><div><h3>Samples</h3><div>The sample comprises 788 Chinese primary school students from the third to the fifth grade.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A cross-sectional study employing network analysis and comparison was conducted to examine the relationship between executive function and English academic performance in Chinese primary school students.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The results indicate that working memory updating exerts a significant influence on various aspects of English academic performance. Working memory span and cognitive flexibility positively predict English writing, while response inhibition is the strongest predictor of reading. Regarding gender differences, working memory span negatively predicts listening in males, whereas it has a stronger positive impact on overall English academic performance in females.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>This study reveals the complex relationships between executive function components and various aspects of English academic performance, establishing a foundation for exploring their causal links and offering empirical support for targeted teaching strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102174"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144330896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The neural correlates of cognitive load in learning: An fMRI study on graph comprehension","authors":"Erol Ozcelik","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102175","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102175","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Cognitive load theory suggests that excessive demands on the human cognitive system can lead to cognitive overload and impaired learning. However, whilst the neural correlates of cognitive load are unclear, neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) may help provide answers to these questions.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>Considering this potential, this study aims to investigate which brain structures are associated with cognitive load through conducting an fMRI study on graph comprehension.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>The study's sample consists of 15 undergraduate students.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Based on a within-subjects design, participants answered comprehension questions using split (i.e., high cognitive load) and integrated (i.e., low cognitive load) graphs whilst undergoing a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Participants exhibited lower levels of accuracy and slower reaction times with split graphs compared to integrated graphs. The fMRI data showed that cognitive load was associated with the frontoparietal network. More specifically, the multiple demand network revealed greater activation in graphs with higher cognitive load than those of lower cognitive load.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These findings may indicate that a domain-general attentional brain network is responsible for cognitive load.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102175"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144322286","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Teacher-child relationships, early childhood programme quality and early learning in two-year-old toddlers","authors":"Miao Zhong ,&nbsp;Melissa Pearl Caldwell ,&nbsp;Sum-Kwing Cheung ,&nbsp;Him Cheung ,&nbsp;Carrey Tik-Sze Siu","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102173","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102173","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Empirical attention on infant-toddler early learning following attendance at early childhood care and education (ECCE) group settings has been scant.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study examines the quality of ECCE programmes designated for children from birth to three years, and considers how ECCE programme quality works with teacher-child relationships to shape early learning in very young children.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were 128 two-year-old toddlers (<em>M</em>_age = 33.11 ± 3.56 months) from Hong Kong who were enrolled in ECCE programmes and their teachers.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>The toddlers were tested on early language, literacy, and mathematics abilities. Teacher Behaviour Rating Scale, an observational tool which captures both the quantity and quality of early childhood teachers’ instructional behaviour, was used to measure ECCE programme quality. Teacher-child relationships was reported by the early childhood teachers using Student-Teacher Relationships Scale.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>(i) ECCE programme quality and teacher-child closeness positively predicted the toddlers' early academic skills; (ii) teacher-child conflict was not associated with the toddlers' early academic learning; (ii) ECCE programme quality mediated the link between teacher-child closeness and the toddlers’ gains in early language skills three months later.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The findings are novel in revealing the role of teachers' practice as indexed by programme quality in explaining the association between teacher-child relationship and toddlers’ early academic abilities, adding to our knowledge of how relationship-based curriculum and pedagogy for infants and toddlers foster learning in our youngest citizens.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102173"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144306951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Beyond analysing frequencies: Exploring teacher professional vision with epistemic network analysis of teachers’ think-aloud data","authors":"Rebekka Stahnke ,&nbsp;Andreas Gegenfurtner","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102167","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102167","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Teacher professional vision describes how teachers perceive classroom events, interpret these events, and form decisions about next strategies. As indicators of visual expertise, noticing, and reasoning, analyses of think-aloud protocols can offer useful insights into novice and expert teachers’ mental models of observed classroom management events.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>Informed by the cognitive theory of visual expertise, the study compared two methods—a standard frequency-based approach and epistemic network analysis (ENA)—for analysing think-aloud data from novice and expert teachers. The aim was to illustrate the potential of both methods in revealing how teachers integrate noticed visual information and classroom management scripts into elaborate mental representations of classroom management events.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were 19 pre-service and 20 in-service teachers.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Teachers’ think-aloud data after watching a video with critical classroom management events were coded and analysed using a standard frequency-based approach and epistemic network analysis.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The frequency-based approach counted the number of codes, indicating that experts verbalized student learning, teacher behavioural management, and alternative management strategies more frequently than novices. In comparison, ENA visualized the temporal co-occurrences of codes within event-related utterances, indicating that novices struggled to make sense of events while experts were able to integrate information and scripts into more elaborate and well-structured mental models.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>When compared to a frequency-based approach, ENA can provide deep insights into teachers' mental representations of classroom management events. ENA is thus a useful novel method to examine teachers’ integration of information into mental models as indicators of professional vision and expertise.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"99 ","pages":"Article 102167"},"PeriodicalIF":4.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144279228","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}