Learning and Instruction最新文献

{"title":"Exploring the interaction of writer individual differences in predicting L2 students’ writing achievements","authors":"Jianhua Zhang ,&nbsp;Lawrence Jun Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102214","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102214","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>There are ample studies on the effects of learner individual differences on L2 learning. However, the literature is almost void on the complex interactions among writer individual differences (WIDs) and their effects on L2 students' writing performance.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study was designed to explore the interactions between WIDs in predicting L2 students’ writing performance.</div></div><div><h3>Samples</h3><div>We conducted this study with a convenience sample of 391 voluntary L2 student participants from two Chinese universities.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We required the participants to complete cognitive tests designed to measure their language aptitude and working memory capacity, four questionnaires to gauge their self-perceived L2 grit, writing achievement goals, writing self-efficacy, and self-regulated learning (SRL) writing strategies, and two writing tasks to measure their writing performance.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Through structural equation modeling, we identified shared and task-specific mediated paths. For both tasks, L2 grit and writing self-efficacy mediated the respective impacts of vocabulary learning ability, working memory, and writing achievement goals on the quality of L2 writing; writing achievement, L2 grit and writing achievement goals mediate the influence of vocabulary learning ability on L2 writing quality; writing self-efficacy mediated the impact of L2 grit on L2 writing quality. Additionally, in the argumentative task, SRL writing strategies mediated the influence of writing achievement goals on L2 writing quality, whereas, in the narrative task, L2 grit mediated the respective impacts of vocabulary learning ability, working memory, and writing achievement goals on L2 quality, and writing self-efficacy mediated the influence of working memory on L2 writing quality.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The results reveal complex mediation process illuminating how WIDs influence L2 writing performance through various mediators.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102214"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144925098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The influence of teacher talk on primary school students’ learning in science: A person-centered approach to analyzing conceptual change","authors":"Annika Herrmann,&nbsp;Cornelia Schulze,&nbsp;Kim Lange-Schubert,&nbsp;Henrik Saalbach","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102216","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102216","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Students show a multitude of preconceptions, that frequently deviate from scientific concepts. The conceptual change that is required to overcome these misconceptions can be achieved through different pathways. However, the influence of verbal support strategies on this phenomenon remains to be elucidated.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>The study aims to examine whether students simultaneously show misconceptions and scientific concepts and how verbal support strategies influence students’ conceptual development.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were 1162 students from 53 fourth grade classes.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Students’ conceptions were examined through questionnaires at two time points (T1, T2). Video coding was utilized to assess the verbal support strategies used by teachers. Latent profile analyses and latent profile transition analyses were conducted and support strategies were incorporated as covariates.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Four profiles at T1 were identified: 'high misconceptions', 'high coexistence of conceptions', 'high fragmented conceptions', and 'high scientific concepts'. The impact of verbal support strategies varies depending on the profile to which the students belong at T1. At T2, the transition to the 'high scientific concept' profile was impeded by focus strategies for those in the 'high misconceptions' or 'high fragmented conceptions' profile at T1. This transition was positively influenced by the use of activate and revoicing strategies when the starting point was the 'high coexistence of conceptions' profile.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Teachers need to be aware that there is no one-size-fits-all solution when it comes to verbal support. Rather, teachers need to continuously check students’ knowledge level and adapt their strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102216"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144925097","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The moderating role of the teacher-child relationship in the association between peer rejection and language competence in early childhood education","authors":"Femke van der Wilt ,&nbsp;Jantine Spilt ,&nbsp;Sharisse van Driel ,&nbsp;Hilde Colpin (Prof)","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102217","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102217","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Early language competence is an important predictor of children's academic and social success, as it underpins cognitive, communicative, and interpersonal skills.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>In the present study, the relation between peer rejection and language competence was investigated in early childhood education. In addition, it was assessed whether the teacher-child relationship moderates this relation.</div></div><div><h3>Sample(s)</h3><div>In total, <em>N</em> = 328 children and seventeen teachers participated in the study. Children went to Dutch primary schools and were aged four to six years.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>The extent to which children were rejected by peers was measured with a nomination procedure and children's level of language competence was assessed with a subscale of the Nijmegen Test for Pragmatics. The teacher-child relationship was measured by two subscales of the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale, indicating the level of teacher-child closeness and teacher-child conflict.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Outcomes of multilevel analyses demonstrated that peer rejection is related to language competence for below-median levels of teacher-child closeness (not above-median) and for above-median levels of teacher-child conflict (not below-median).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>These findings extend previous research into the relation between peer rejection and language competence and indicate the need of investigating both teacher-child – and peer relationships to better understand their joint influence on language development.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102217"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144906675","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Are direct effects of cognitive activation on student outcomes enough? Exploring the role of adaptation and use of opportunities","authors":"Charalambos Y. Charalambous ,&nbsp;Urs Grob ,&nbsp;Anna-Katharina Praetorius ,&nbsp;Carmen Köhler ,&nbsp;Zhenzhen Miao","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102176","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102176","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Although cognitive activation has been receiving growing scholarly attention, research findings on its contribution to student outcomes have been inconclusive. We argue that this might be due to two core conditions not investigated by many studies: learning opportunities related to cognitive activation ought to be adapted to student needs and students must make use of the provided opportunities to learn.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We tested this argument by comparing a model that included only direct effects of cognitive activation on student cognitive and affective outcomes against moderation, mediation, and moderated mediation models that incorporated the effects of adaptation and use of opportunities.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Our sample included 496 teachers and 13,326 secondary school students from six educational systems that had participated in the TALIS Video study.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We first estimated multilevel path models with separate parameter estimations for each educational system. Then we quantified the overall effects and degree of heterogeneity, testing whether: (a) adaptation moderates the effect of cognitive activation on student achievement/interest at T2 while controlling for T1, (b) depth of processing mediates this effect, and (c) adaptation moderates the mediated effect between cognitive activation and student achievement/interest via depth of processing.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The direct-effects model yielded inconclusive results. The most encouraging, yet still somewhat mixed, results emerged from the mediation model.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>While some of the more complex models show promise in capturing the impact of teaching on student outcomes, the varied findings across educational systems, analysis levels, and outcomes suggest diverse mechanisms in how teaching contributes to learning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102176"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144906676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Adjusting strategies when reading reliable and unreliable texts","authors":"Christian Tarchi ,&nbsp;Lidia Casado-Ledesma ,&nbsp;Elisa Guidi ,&nbsp;Øistein Anmarkrud","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102218","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102218","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Effective multiple-text comprehension tasks require readers to integrate information from various sources, which often present contradictions and differing levels of reliability. Understanding how source reliability affects the use of intertextual integration strategies is crucial for comprehending conflicting information.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study aimed to investigate how the reliability of sources influences the application of intertextual integration strategies—specifically refutation, weighing, and synthesis—during the processing of conflicting information.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>The study involved 130 university students.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Participants were tasked with processing multiple texts while their responses were analyzed for the use of intertextual integration strategies. The study manipulated the reliability of sources to observe its effect on the participants' integration strategies.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The findings revealed that students rarely employed weighting and refutation strategies, which hindered a comprehensive assessment of their ability to adjust these strategies based on source reliability. However, the manipulation of source reliability significantly impacted the effective use of the synthesis strategy. Prior beliefs seemed to influence the use of synthesis as an intertextual integration strategy across texts with varying levels of reliability. Additionally, participants' awareness of intertextual integration strategies was found to predict their integration capacity, regardless of the source reliability manipulation.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The results suggest that while students may struggle with certain integration strategies, enhancing awareness of intertextual integration can improve their ability to reconcile conflicting information. Future research should further explore instructional methods to support strategy adjustment based on source reliability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102218"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144912953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Agile learning to boost Java skills in novice learners","authors":"Chih-Chien Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102221","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102221","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Context</h3><div>Teaching Java programming to beginners in blended digital and classroom learning settings presents challenges in fostering skill progression and maintaining engagement. Regular learning methods often fail to support the sequential development of computational thinking and programming proficiency.</div></div><div><h3>Objective</h3><div>This study introduces an agile learning strategy aimed at improving Java programming skills in beginners. The strategy emphasizes step-by-step learning of core concepts through visual programming games and repetitive practice to enhance both engagement and skill development.</div></div><div><h3>Method</h3><div>The agile learning strategy was applied in a blended learning environment, incorporating interactive programming tools, continuous feedback, and repetition. A comparative analysis was conducted between two groups: one using the agile strategy and another following regular learning methods. Improvements in computational thinking and Java programming skills were assessed.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Learners using the agile strategy showed significant improvements in both computational thinking and Java programming skills, outperforming those in the regular learning group. However, variations in individual performance suggest that learner-specific factors may affect outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102221"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144906674","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Examining myside bias on a controversial historical event after engagement in dialogic argumentation: Insights from a think aloud study","authors":"Kalypso Iordanou ,&nbsp;Constantina Fotiou ,&nbsp;Athina Manoli ,&nbsp;Michalinos Zembylas","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102209","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102209","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The main objective of this exploratory study was to examine students' reasoning – particularly myside bias – on a controversial historical event using rich think aloud data, before and after being engaged in extensive dialogic argumentation on a non-historical topic. Elementary school students engaged in a nine-session argument-based intervention. For 30 students — a subset of the 116 participants who engaged in the intervention and who constitute the focus of this study — myside bias was assessed before and after their engagement in the intervention, using the think-aloud methodology. Students were asked to read two accounts about a recent war in their country—an own-side account from a historian of their ethnic group and an other-side account from a historian of the adversary ethnic group—and to think aloud. The analysis of the think-aloud protocols shows that participants responded differently when reading the own-side account vs. the other-side one. In particular, participants expressed significantly more statements that supported the other-side when reading the other-side's account than when reading their own-side's account. This shows that engaging with the other-side account, as revealed by the think-aloud process, can promote a deeper understanding of the other side. Moreover, they made more evaluative comments post-assessment than pre-assessment. However, their evaluative comments were still in favor of their own position, which shows how resilient myside bias is to change. Overall, our findings suggest that the think-aloud methodology is a valuable tool for identifying (changes in) myside bias and the conditions that facilitate it.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102209"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144890933","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Differentiated instruction on undergraduate students based on classification and prediction of students performance using PSO-BP neural network","authors":"Bingxin Wang ,&nbsp;Huiting Liu ,&nbsp;Yin Gu ,&nbsp;Xuan Pan","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102210","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102210","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Differentiated instruction (DI) is increasingly recognized as a strategy to meet the diverse learning needs of students by adapting teaching methods to individual characteristics. However, accurate student classification remains a challenge, limiting DI's effectiveness.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>This study aims to develop a more precise, data-driven classification method to enhance DI implementation and improve learning outcomes.</div></div><div><h3>Samples</h3><div>The study utilized a dataset of 1386 second-year Mechanical and Automotive Engineering undergraduates for model training and validation. An independent external test set of 150 students from the same discipline, not included in the initial dataset, was employed to empirically evaluate the implementation of DI.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We integrated educational data mining with a Particle Swarm Optimization-Backpropagation (PSO-BP) neural network to classify and predict student performance. Key factors influencing academic performance, including past grades, student engagement, and teacher-student interaction, were analyzed. Pearson correlation and multicollinearity testing were employed to ensure model robustness, and K-fold cross-validation ensured accuracy.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The PSO-BP model significantly improved classification accuracy, particularly in 3-Classes and 5-Classes groupings. Students receiving DI based on these refined classifications demonstrated notable improvements in academic performance compared to those classified using traditional methods.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>This study offers a scalable, data-driven solution for student classification in DI, addressing the limitations of current models and providing a practical framework for educational institutions to tailor learning experiences, ultimately enhancing student outcomes and teaching efficacy.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102210"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144880285","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating grade-level and text genre effects in Quality Talk discussions: An AI-powered discourse analysis of upper primary students’ high-level comprehension","authors":"Carla M. Firetto ,&nbsp;P. Karen Murphy ,&nbsp;Emily Starrett ,&nbsp;Emilee A. Herman ,&nbsp;Jeffrey A. Greene ,&nbsp;Yue Tang ,&nbsp;Lin Yan","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102208","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102208","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Students in upper primary grades must move beyond basic comprehension toward high-level comprehension (HLC) of text as they read. Small-group, text-based discussions provide opportunities for students to develop their critical analytic thinking and argumentation, supporting their HLC.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We explored the extent to which groups of upper primary students evidenced growth on indicators of HLC as they engaged in small-group, text-based discussions over a school year, while also examining grade-level and text genre differences.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants included fourth- (<em>n</em> = 64) and fifth-grade (<em>n</em> = 69) students.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We employed a single-group, longitudinal design, whereby Quality Talk was embedded into the language arts curriculum of six upper elementary classrooms. Video-recorded discussions (<em>n</em> = 371) were transcribed. We employed an artificial intelligence (AI) powered coding approach to identify indicators of HLC in the discussion transcripts.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Groups of upper primary students, on average, evidenced growth in the rates of HLC indicators over the school year. Groups composed of fifth-grade students, on average, had higher elaborated explanation rates than fourth-grade students, and all students, on average, produced a higher rate of elaborated explanations for discussions based on mixed genre versus expository genre texts.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Findings from this study contribute to a growing body of literature about grade-level differences in upper primary grades, as well as the influence of text genre on indicators of HLC present within small-group discussions. Notably, the study also employed a novel, AI-powered coding approach for our discourse analysis, which warrants further exploration in future research.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102208"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144880284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mother, Father, and Toddler Spatial Language in English and Spanish during Play: Associations with Toddlers’ Emerging Spatial Cognition","authors":"Lillian R. Masek ,&nbsp;Daniel D. Suh ,&nbsp;Alex M. Silver ,&nbsp;Melissa Libertus ,&nbsp;Natasha J. Cabrera ,&nbsp;Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda","doi":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102195","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102195","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Parents' spatial language predicts children's spatial language and cognition. Most research focuses on mothers, leaving unknown how fathers' spatial language relates to children's spatial learning. Furthermore, most studies of spatial language involve English-speaking samples, precluding an understanding of common and unique ways that parents and toddlers from different language communities use spatial language during play.</div></div><div><h3>Aims</h3><div>We videorecorded English- and Spanish-speaking fathers, mothers, and toddlers during a spatial activity and tested associations between their use of spatial language and toddlers’ understanding of shape names and spatial relations.</div></div><div><h3>Sample</h3><div>Participants were 56 mothers, 44 fathers, and 58 toddlers (ages 24–36 months; 30 female). For 42 families, both mother and father participated. For 14 families only the mother participated, and for 2 families only the father participated.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Mother-toddler and father-toddler dyads interacted with a magnet board. Interactions were transcribed and coded for spatial language. Fifty-five dyads used all or mostly Spanish spatial language, and 42 used all or mostly English. A researcher assessed toddlers’ understanding of shape names and spatial relations.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>There were no differences in spatial language between mother-toddler and father-toddler dyads. English-speaking participants used a greater variety of spatial words/phrases than Spanish-speaking participants, which may reflect language differences how spatial concepts are encoded. Parents' spatial talk related to toddlers' spatial talk, and parents' and toddlers' spatial talk related to toddlers’ spatial skills.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Meaningful individual differences in spatial language emerge by toddlerhood, and both fathers and mothers contribute to toddlers’ production and understanding of spatial words.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48357,"journal":{"name":"Learning and Instruction","volume":"100 ","pages":"Article 102195"},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-08-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144861178","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"教育学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}