Journal of Optometry最新文献

{"title":"A virtual approach: Systematic review and meta-analysis of virtual reality-based therapies for convergence insufficiency","authors":"Torikul Islam ,&nbsp;Amit Dutta Roy","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100540","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100540","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Convergence insufficiency (CI) is a common binocular vision disorder that significantly impacts visual comfort and quality of life. It has been hypothesized that CI therapy can also be provided effectively with Virtual reality (VR). Recently, a few studies were conducted on virtual reality-based CI therapy. However, to the best of the authors' knowledge, no systematic review and meta-analysis has been performed on the effectiveness of VR-based CI therapy. Therefore, this study aims to fill this critical gap and investigate the effectiveness of VR-based CI therapy. Consequently, it may be helpful to the clinicians, patients, and researchers to choose therapy, and develop future research studies. A systematic search was conducted on Google scholar, Scopus, PubMed and Science Direct until October 1, 2024. A total of 649 studies were screened, of which 3 studies were eligible to be included. We evaluated the quality and risk of bias for the included studies. Using the random-effects model, we found an overall mean difference of 3.38 (95% CI: 1.61, 5.16) before and after VR-based therapy. I² was 54.82% in our study, which indicates moderate heterogeneity. Then, we performed a Q test and found Q (df = 2) = 4.3593 and p-value = 0.1131, which indicates that albeit some heterogeneity observed in our analysis, it was not statistically significant. We also performed Leave-One-Out sensitivity analysis, which indicates that the overall findings of our analysis were relatively stable and not excessively dependent on any single selected study. No significant evidence of publication bias was found by using a funnel plot, Begg's test (Kendall's Tau = 1, p-value = 0.33), and Egger's test (intercept = 2.45, p-value = 0.40). Although we found VR based CI therapy has a positive effect, small sample size and variability in study methodologies make the current evidence insufficient to draw definitive conclusions regarding its effectiveness. Further studies are required to have more robust and reliable data.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 2","pages":"Article 100540"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143687664","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Real-time assessment of eye movements during reading in individuals with central vision loss using eye-tracking technology: A pilot study","authors":"Leonela González-Vides ,&nbsp;Pilar Cañadas ,&nbsp;José Antonio Gómez-Pedrero ,&nbsp;Jose Luis Hernández-Verdejo","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100544","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100544","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>To assess eye movements during reading in individuals with central vision loss using eye-tracking technology and an ad-hoc calibration method.</div></div><div><h3>Materials and methods</h3><div>This pilot case control study included 17 participants (61.7 ± 8.8 years), 12 women and 5 men) and 17 controls, matched for age and sex. Two ad hoc computer-based tests were administered to analyze eye movements during a single-letter reading task and continuous reading task, measured using a 60 Hz eye-tracking device.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Individuals with central vision loss showed differences from the control group, with an increase in the number of fixations, saccadic movements, and regressions, whereas the amplitude and speed of saccades were lower. This resulted in longer reading times in the study group.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The results revealed lower performance in eye movements skills during reading tasks in patients with central vision loss. Eye-tracking devices allow the objective binocular assessment of eye movements during reading tasks. Our ad-hoc calibration method ensured minimal data loss and high validity, enhancing the reliability of the assessments. This information can be used to develop optimal and personalized functional and visual rehabilitation programs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 2","pages":"Article 100544"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143642785","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Finnish optometrists’ competence to recognize, assess, and manage trochlear nerve palsy: A cross-sectional study","authors":"Anna Pietilä ,&nbsp;Seija Säynäjäkangas ,&nbsp;Arja Rantala","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100541","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100541","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>To investigate both Finnish optometrists’ self-assessed competence in trochlear nerve palsy care and needs for development.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A total of 196 Finnish optometrists or opticians participated in the study. The data were collected during April–May 2024 using an online questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistical methods.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The Finnish optometrists and opticians rated their total competence in trochlear nerve palsy as moderate (mean 2.05 ± SD 0.53) using a Likert scale ranging from 1(poor) to 4 (excellent). Taking an anamnesis received the highest rating (mean 2.65 ± 0.61) among the subareas of competencies, while knowing test methods was perceived as the weakest subarea (mean 1.58 ± 0.51). The results indicate that educational level (all <em>p</em> ≤ 0.003, except management), working place (all <em>p</em> ≤ 0.005), additional training (all <em>p</em> ≤ 0.001), cooperation with ophthalmologists (all <em>p</em> ≤ 0.029, except assessment/test methods), and available time (all <em>p</em> ≤ 0.031, except test methods) had a statistically significant difference compared to the responders’ self-assessed competence in almost all subareas of competencies. A master's degree was associated with higher competence and showed a significant difference compared with a bachelor's degree or college-level opticians (both <em>p</em> &lt; 0.001).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The results underscore the significance of continuous competence development and higher education in trochlear nerve palsy care. With additional training, recognizing and examining ocular nerve palsies would become easier and more familiar, lowering the threshold for examining ocular nerve damage or reacting to it. This first study on optometrists' competencies in Finland can help identify clinical competencies and target educational resources.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 2","pages":"Article 100541"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143611104","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A retinal simulation study on the influence of spherical aberration, astigmatism and optotype on the Jackson cross cylinder test","authors":"Diana Gargallo,&nbsp;Esther García,&nbsp;Sara Perches,&nbsp;Laura Remón,&nbsp;Jorge Ares","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100543","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100543","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>To study how spherical High-Order Aberration (HOA), astigmatism levels (-0.75 D and -1.25 D), and optotype type (dot pattern vs. letter row) influence patients’ responses in identifying the cylinder axis orientation with the Jackson Cross Cylinder Technique (JCCT).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Numerical simulations of retinal images corresponding to JCCT procedures were conducted and evaluated by 40 subjects. In order to do this, synthetic aberrometric profiles with and without HOAs (4th-order and 6th-order spherical aberrations) and two different astigmatism levels were generated from different Jackson Cross Cylinder axis positions and flips. The variable under study was the percentage of correct responses (hits) during each flip of the cross-cylinder lens. Statistical significance was assessed through confidence intervals overlapping evaluation.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>To achieve 90 % accuracy, the JCCT should begin by deviating &gt;7.5° from the subject's astigmatism axis without spherical HOA and by &gt;15° with them. The magnitude of astigmatism had minor relevance. The dot pattern was more accurate than the letters without HOAs; however, 72.5 % of observers considered that letter optotypes simplify the blur discrimination task.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>According to our simulation experiment for astigmatic axis selection with JCCT, the presence of spherical HOAs significantly impacts the accuracy of patient responses. The type of optotype and the magnitude of astigmatism did not exhibit a clear relationship with accuracy, except in the case of the dot pattern optotype in the absence of HOAs. Under these conditions, the dot pattern achieved the highest rate of accurate responses.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 2","pages":"Article 100543"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143580493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Objective measurements of digital habits in a university population and their relationship with refraction and axial length","authors":"Félix Tomás Varona-Gómez ,&nbsp;Rosa María Salmerón-Campillo ,&nbsp;Vicente Fernández-Sánchez ,&nbsp;Mateusz Jaskulski ,&nbsp;Ginés Martínez-Ros ,&nbsp;José Ángel Díaz-Guirado ,&nbsp;Norberto López-Gil","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100536","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100536","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>To evaluate the relationship between myopia and potential \"myopiagenic\" digital habits (excessive screen time, near face-device distance or low ambient light level).</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>82 university students (21 ± 3 years) underwent a comprehensive optometric examination, including subjective refraction and axial length (AL) measurements. Digital habits were objectively measured using a mobile application (app) capturing screen time, face-device distance, ambient light level and number of interruptions larger than 20″ per day (called \"events\").</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The collection of 40 M data points showed mean values: 57 ± 40 min of daily screen time, 355 ± 67 mm of face-device distance, 305 ± 215 lux of ambient light level and 52 ± 32 events. No correlation was found between spherical equivalent refraction (SER) and digital habits. Particularly, SER was more negative for greater screen times, nearer face-device distances, lower light levels or more events. AL was inversely correlated with SER decrease. Correlation coefficients were very weak (<em>R</em> &lt; 0.14) in all cases.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The app quantified smartphone-based digital habits in a university population. The study revealed weak correlations between digital habits and myopia, indicating that longer-duration studies in a greater population are needed to obtain powerful correlation coefficients.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100536"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143242389","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Real–world outcomes on myopia management efficacy of diverse segmented defocus optics (DSDO) and defocus incorporated multiple segments (DIMS) spectacle lenses in Chinese children: An initial 12–month prospective clinical study","authors":"Yuzhuo Fan ,&nbsp;Huihui Chu ,&nbsp;Zisu Peng ,&nbsp;Jingwei Zhou ,&nbsp;Jiahui Ma ,&nbsp;Yuchang Lu ,&nbsp;Chenxu Zhao ,&nbsp;Yanyan Wang ,&nbsp;Qiulin Deng ,&nbsp;Jifeng Yu ,&nbsp;Yan Li ,&nbsp;Kai Wang ,&nbsp;Mingwei Zhao","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100533","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100533","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purposes</h3><div>To investigate the 12–month effectiveness of Diverse Segmented Defocus Optics (DSDO) and Defocus Incorporated Multiple Segments (DIMS) spectacle lenses in a real–world clinical population in myopic and pre–myopic Chinese children.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>About 364 subjects prescribed DSDO or DIMS were enrolled. Axial length (AL) and cycloplegic spherical equivalent refraction (SER) changes over 12 months were measured. The subjects were further divided into age sub–group (6–9; 10–14) and SER sub–group (+0.75D≤SER&lt;–0.50D; –0.50D≤SER&lt;–2.00D; –2.00D≤SER&lt;–4.00D; SER≤–4.0D). Contrast sensitivity and visual experience were also reported. The rate of myopia progression was compared with historical single–vision spectacles (SVS) lenses data to evaluate the effectiveness of the regime.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>317 subjects were analyzed. At 12–month, AL changes in the DSDO and DIMS group were 0.16±0.16 mm and 0.21±0.22 mm, respectively (<em>P</em> = 0.0202). DSDO spectacle lenses had better control effect in +0.75D≤SER&lt;–0.50D and SER≤–2.0D sub–groups. The proportion of participants had no greater than 0.20 mm AL elongation was 65.00% and 55.41% of in DSDO and DIMS group separately. Myopia control effect in DSDO group was 47%–69% and 33%–62% in DIMS group compared to historical SVS lenses.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Both DSDO and DIMS spectacle lenses retarded AL elongation. DSDO showed more stable myopia control effect comparing to DIMS, especially in groups of SER≤–2.0D sub–groups and older patients. DSDO showed initial potential myopia prevention effect in pre–myopic children compared with historical SVS lenses data. However, the small sample and no control group in pre–myopes of this study are key limitations. Further research is needed to confirm and understand DSDO's role for pre–myopic children.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100533"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11773219/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142972732","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prevalence of astigmatism among 99,515 children in different areas of Xi'an City, China","authors":"Ye Zhang ,&nbsp;Xiaokang He ,&nbsp;Wei Dong ,&nbsp;Zihao Wang ,&nbsp;Chengfei Liu ,&nbsp;Yanying Li ,&nbsp;Zhaojiang Du","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100538","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2025.100538","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>To investigate the prevalence of astigmatism among children in different areas of Xi'an.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>A cross-sectional study was conducted in Xi'an, China, involving children from 139 primary schools, 28 junior high schools, and 10 senior high schools. Data on uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) and non-cycloplegic spherical equivalent (SE) were collected from March 2023 to June 2023 based on a new screening model by the Department of Ophthalmology of Xi'an Central Hospital. Data from the right eye were included in the statistical analysis. Trend changes in astigmatism prevalence across different areas, educational stages, ages, and genders were analyzed using the X² test and trend test.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>A total of 99,515 children were included in the analysis. The overall prevalence of astigmatism was 59.3% [95% CI: 59.0% to 59.6%]. The prevalence of astigmatism was higher in urban areas compared to the urban-rural fringe (61.1% [95% CI: 60.6% to 61.6%] vs. 58.3% [95% CI: 57.9% to 58.7%]) (X²trend = 73.174, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05). Boys had a higher prevalence of astigmatism than girls (59.8% [95% CI: 59.4% to 60.2%] vs. 58.8% [95% CI: 58.6% to 59.0%]) (X²trend = 11.613, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05). Compared to the primary and senior school, the overall prevalence of astigmatism is most significant during the junior school stage (X²trend = 1710.133, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05), with rates of 54.6% in primary school, 71.3% in junior high school, and 68.7% in senior high school (X²trend = 10.694–868.913, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05), among which grade 9 has the highest prevalence (X²trend = 2766.194, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05). Myopia severity increased with the degree of astigmatism (X²trend = 2547.677, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05), and boys were more likely to experience worsening myopia with increasing astigmatism compared to girls (X²trend = 36.878, <em>P</em> &lt; 0.05).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Astigmatism was most prevalent among children in Xi'an during junior school, peaking in grade 9. Urban areas showed higher incidence rates than urban-rural ones, and boys had a consistently higher prevalence than girls, with WTR being the most common type.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100538"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143509646","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comment on: “Mean cycloplegic refractive error in emmetropic adults: The Tehran eye study”","authors":"Suraj Kumar Chaurasiya,&nbsp;M. Optom","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100532","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100532","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100532"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11780080/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142956613","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of lens thickness on the accommodative range in healthy eyes","authors":"Louise Vermeulen ,&nbsp;Carina Koppen ,&nbsp;Luc Van Os ,&nbsp;Barbara K. Pierscionek ,&nbsp;Jos J. Rozema","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100528","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100528","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The maximum accommodative range is a useful indication of visual function. It decreases with age, but the exact cause of this decrease is not fully understood. It is associated with the increasing rigidity of the lens and changes to the lens shape, as well as the geometry of the zonular attachments. This work aims to determine the relationship between the accommodative range and lens shape in a group of healthy young adults.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>This study includes 40 emmetropic participants between 20 and 30 years of age. They filled in a questionnaire and underwent accommodation measurements using the RAF Convergence Rule and the Negative Lens Test. After a drop of Tropicamide 0.5 % and Cyclopentolate 1 %, participants underwent measurements with autorefractor, Scheimpflug tomography (Pentacam HR, Oculus), anterior segment Optical Coherence Tomography and optical biometry.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The accommodative range did not correlate significantly (<em>p</em> <em>&gt;</em> <em>0.05</em>) with any of the lenticular or ocular parameters considered, such as lens thickness, lens radii of curvature, axial length, or corneal power.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The crystalline lens shape does not affect the accommodative range of the eye. This may be due to the smaller deformation required to bring a thicker lens to the same level of accommodation as a thinner lens. The amount of force on the zonular fibres may therefore be similar, in all lenses, regardless of the lens shape.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100528"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11760814/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142956629","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prevalence of refractive errors among school students in Iraq — A systematic review and meta-analysis","authors":"Hassan A. Aljaberi ,&nbsp;I.R. Ali ,&nbsp;Zaydoon Tariq M. Noori","doi":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100534","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.optom.2024.100534","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>This research aimed to thoroughly examine and meta-analyse statistical information about the prevalence of refractive error in Iraq.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>To discover every pertinent Iraqi epidemiological study from March 2014 to March 2024, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Embase, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library were searched and reviewed. The Iraqi refractive error rate was interesting. The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Software received unprocessed events and sample sizes for effect size calculations.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>A meta-analysis was undertaken by pooling data from 10 studies. The fixed effects model indicates an estimated effect size of 29.8% (95% CI: 28.6—30.9%). However, the statistical measures of heterogeneity (Q-value <em>p</em> &lt; 0.001; I2 = 98.707) showed significant heterogeneity among the studies, which indicates that a random-effects model should be used. The random effects model suggests that the prevalence of refractive error in the Iraqi population is predicted to be 27.6% (95% CI: 18.9—38.5%). The most common refractive defect was myopia, found in 35.1% of cases (95% CI: 24.9—46.8%). Astigmatism was the second most prevalent, affecting 32.2% (95% CI: 19.1—49.0%), followed by hyperopia in 23.9% (95% CI: 16.0—34.2%).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Current estimate of refractive error prevalence in Iraq may be conservative of this condition's burden. Nevertheless, this corresponds to a minimum of 8 to 18 million individuals in Iraq who have a refractive error. Due to study variability, wide estimate ranges, and random effects, more research and reliable sources are needed to obtain more accurate results.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":46407,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Optometry","volume":"18 1","pages":"Article 100534"},"PeriodicalIF":2.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143529862","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}