Water Research最新文献

{"title":"In situ addition of layered double hydroxides promotes sulfate-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation and microbial community shifts in freshwater-influenced mangroves sediments","authors":"Jijuan Ding,&nbsp;Fei Liu,&nbsp;Jing Huang,&nbsp;Ping Li,&nbsp;Junmao Zhang,&nbsp;Bo Wu,&nbsp;Longfei Shu,&nbsp;Zhili He,&nbsp;Cheng Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123851","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123851","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Freshwater-influenced mangrove wetlands are significant sources of methane emissions, potentially offsetting up to 27 % of their carbon storage. The targeted reduction of these emissions offers a critical avenue for enhancing climate resilience. While laboratory studies have shown that elevated sulfate concentrations can suppress methane emissions, the in situ-based effects on methane cycling and associated microbial communities remain poorly understood. To explore this, we introduced magnesium-aluminum layered double hydroxides (Mg-Al-SO₄-LDH), a slow-release sulfate mineral, into freshwater-influenced mangrove sediments in Guangzhou, China, over a 74-day period, resulting in sulfate levels that were 8.9 times higher than those of the control. Isotope tracing, full-length 16S rDNA sequencing, and metagenomic analysis revealed that this sulfate augmentation significantly altered the methane cycling and functional microbial communities. Notably, we observed substantial stimulation of sulfate reduction coupled with anaerobic oxidation of methane (SR-AOM) within Mg-Al-SO₄-LDH-attached microbial communities, characterized by a 6.9-fold increase of anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea (ANME-1b subtype). Contrary to laboratory observations, the elevated sulfate conditions selectively promoted hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis in situ. These findings establish Mg-Al-SO₄-LDH as a promising approach for enhancing SR-AOM activity while modulating methanogenic pathways, offering novel perspectives for methane management strategies and climate change mitigation within mangrove ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123851"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144067496","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the self-diffusion coefficients of binary mixtures of supercritical water and H2, CO, CO2, CH4 confined in carbon nanotubes","authors":"Bowei Zhang,&nbsp;Xiaoyu Li,&nbsp;Jie Zhang,&nbsp;Junying Wang,&nbsp;Hui Jin","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123856","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123856","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nano-confined binary mixtures are prevalent in the chemical industry, geology, and energy sectors. Investigating their mass transfer behavior can enhance process intensification. This study examines the confined self-diffusion coefficients of binary mixtures of supercritical water (SCW) with H₂, CO, CO₂ and CH₄ in carbon nanotubes (CNT) using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations at temperatures of 673-973 K, a pressure of 25-28 MPa, solute molar concentrations of 0.01-0.3, and CNT diameters of 9.49-29.83 Å. We developed a novel machine learning (ML) clustering method to optimize abnormal MSD-<em>t</em> data, effectively extracting information and providing algorithmic enhancements for calculating the diffusion coefficient. We analyzed the effects of temperature, solute molar concentration, and CNT diameter on the confined self-diffusion coefficient and energy input. Results indicate that over 60 % of the solute energy input derives from the Lennard-Jones effect of the CNT wall. The confined self-diffusion coefficient of solutes increases linearly with temperature, saturates with increasing CNT diameter, and remains relatively constant with varying concentration. Finally, based on the unique relationship between CNTs and the confined self-diffusion coefficient, we developed a new mathematical model for prediction. The regression line exhibits an <em>R²</em> value of 0.9789, offering a new method for predicting the properties of nano-confined fluids.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123856"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144083149","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Degradation of malathion to low-toxicity products via peroxymonosulfate activated by plastic/K2FeO4-derived porous carbon","authors":"Yao Zhou ,&nbsp;Liangjie Wang ,&nbsp;Feng Qian ,&nbsp;Linghao Kong ,&nbsp;Yang Wu ,&nbsp;Xiaolin Xie ,&nbsp;Yonghui Song","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123848","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123848","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Malathion is a widely used insecticide with toxic effects on humans and is considered to be genotoxic and carcinogenic. As the common free radicals in advanced oxidation processes, hydroxyl radical (•OH) and sulfate radical (SO₄^•−) can efficiently degrade malathion, but highly toxic product malaoxon is prone to produce in this process. In response to this issue, polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) plastics and K₂FeO₄ were utilized to prepare Fe⁰-doped porous plastic-derived carbon material (FAC) as peroxymonosulfate (PMS) trigger to perform low toxicity degradation of malathion. FAC (100 mg/L) could trigger 0.5 mM PMS to completely degrade 10 mg/L malathion within 15 min. PMS alone, singlet oxygen (¹O₂), •OH, and SO₄^•− contributed to the degradation of malathion, in which ¹O₂ played the most important role with a contribution of 53.5%. Density functional theory (DFT) was employed to elucidate the reaction site of ¹O₂ for malathion, further illustrating ¹O₂ with the product of desmethyl malathion. Based on the DFT program, we calculated the theoretical second-order rate constants, the reactivity of ¹O₂ with malathion to produce desmethyl malathion, was 1.88 × 10¹² M⁻¹ s⁻¹, which was much higher than another reaction pathway with the highly toxic product of malaoxon (1.36 × 10⁷ M⁻¹ s⁻¹). The binding energies of various key proteins of zebrafish and human beings to the degradation products were analyzed by molecular dynamics to characterize their ecological and human toxicity. Surprisingly, in contrast to the highly toxic intermediate malaoxon in the previous studies, desmethyl malathion, the main degradation product in FAC/PMS system, has a significantly low toxicity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123848"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144067277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Solar-light-driven inactivation of toxigenic Microcystis by floating photocatalytic mesh system: Insights on physiological mechanism and application","authors":"Guangqi An ,&nbsp;Cheng Zhang ,&nbsp;Yunxin Zhu ,&nbsp;Hongjian Zhang ,&nbsp;Naoki Kawazoe ,&nbsp;Guoping Chen ,&nbsp;Yingnan Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123819","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123819","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Harmful algal blooms (HABs) pose serious ecological and health risks with releasing waterborne toxins. In this study, a novel floating Bi₂WO₆-based photocatalytic mesh (BPM) system was developed for efficient water purification by targeting the inactivation of HABs-dominated <em>Microcystis</em> and detoxification of associated microcystins (MCs) under solar light irradiation. The superior flotation, durability and sunlight utilization of the BPM system were achieved by its super-hydrophobic surface, robust stainless-steel mesh carrier, and efficient light transmission, respectively. Photocatalytic <em>Microcystis</em> inactivation and MCs degradation were achieved within 6 h at a bloom density of 5 × 10⁶ cells/mL through dual mechanisms, which are free radicals generation and direct physical cell disruption. Additionally, the physiological response in <em>Microcystis</em> exhibited a time-dependent inactivation process. The photosynthetic and antioxidant system, cell membrane integrity and MCs production/release progressively collapsed in the BPM system, finally the MCs rapidly detoxified to a safe level. The floating BPM system maintained excellent stability and efficiency over 165 h of water flushing, demonstrating its superior applicability. The global feasibility assessments of the BPM system based on real-world solar radiation further demonstrated its scalability for reducing HABs areas. This work provides both mechanistic insights and practical validation for sustainable water purification in HABs management.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123819"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144066662","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Transfer dynamics of intracellular and extracellular last-resort antibiotic resistome in hospital wastewater","authors":"Shengcen Zhang ,&nbsp;Jingrong Li ,&nbsp;Junzhong Lai ,&nbsp;Qianwen Zhang ,&nbsp;Zhichang Zhao ,&nbsp;Bin Li","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123833","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123833","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The increasing prevalence of last-resort antibiotic resistance genes (LARGs) has posed severe public health hazards. Previous studies focused primarily on the profiles of intracellular LARGs (iLARGs) in hospital wastewater (HWW), while largely neglecting the expression patterns of iLARGs and the presence of extracellular LARGs (eLARGs). Currently, wastewater resistomes and transfer dynamics of LARGs are still poorly characterized. This study integrates Nanopore-metagenomic and metatranscriptomic sequencing to conduct the comprehensive longitudinal analysis of both iLARGs and eLARGs in HWW. Our study firstly revealed the distinct seasonal patterns of iLARGs and eLARGs. Specifically, iLARGs showed higher abundance during colder seasons, whereas eLARGs showed higher abundance in warm seasons. Both clinical pathogens and functional bacteria of wastewater treatments were identified as important hosts of LARGs, while clinical pathogens played predominant roles in the high expression levels of LARGs. <em>Acinetobacter</em> spp. was identified as major host of <em>bla</em>_NDM-1 in HWW, which is unrestricted by plasmid host range compatibility. However, HWW treatments could not remove LARGs effectively and instead facilitated their transmission by enhancing the expression and horizontal transfer of mobile genetic element (MGE)-derived LARGs. Our study provides comprehensive insights for the atlas and transfer dynamics of LARGs in HWW for the development of control strategies under worldwide spread of antibiotic resistance.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123833"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144067382","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Heterogeneous graph neural networks enhance pressure estimation in water distribution networks","authors":"Jian Wang ,&nbsp;Li Liu ,&nbsp;Dragan Savic ,&nbsp;Guangtao Fu","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123843","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123843","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Pressure estimation is crucial for efficient operation and management of water distribution networks (WDNs). However, it is often challenged by limited sensor observations. While graph neural networks (GNNs) have been used to improve hydraulic and water quality predictions of WDNs, their reliance on homogeneous graphs oversimplifies the diverse roles and interactions of hydraulic components, resulting in lower performance under dynamic system states. This research introduces a novel heterogeneous graph neural network (HGNN) framework, which models control units such as pumps and valves as distinct nodes while preserving their interactions through additional edge types. Experimental results using C-Town as a benchmark demonstrate that HGNN outperforms GNN in terms of accuracy, robustness, and adaptability, achieving a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 1.88 % and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.70 m under a 95 % masking rate. Additionally, this study shows that optimal sensor placement reduces MAE by up to 15 %, and the proposed HGNN framework achieves high computational efficiency, highlighting its effectiveness in WDN analysis and management. This research offers an advanced and transferable approach for WDN pressure estimation, serving as a superior alternative to traditional pressure evaluation models.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123843"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144066659","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Occurrence, concentration and distribution of 50 organic contaminants in water and bottom sediment from urban streams affected by stormwater discharges","authors":"S.E. Kali,&nbsp;H. Österlund,&nbsp;M. Viklander,&nbsp;G. Blecken","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123847","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123847","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Stormwater runoff transports organic contaminants from urban areas to receiving water bodies, yet its contribution to these pollutants in the aquatic environment is still poorly understood. Additionally, contaminants behave differently in receiving waters, with some binding to particles and accumulating in sediments while others stay dissolved in the water. This study was carried out three Swedish urban streams receiving stormwater discharges through separate sewer systems, under dry and wet weather conditions. Stream water and bottom sediment samples were collected along an urbanization gradient, from rural upstream to urban downstream sections, and analyzed for 50 stormwater-related organic contaminants to assess the impact of stormwater on contaminant levels. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phthalates were more prevalent in sediment samples, with concentrations increasing along the urbanization gradient, indicating contributions from urban areas and stormwater runoff. In contrast, organotin compounds and phenols showed no clear pattern indicating transport through stormwater runoff in the water phase. Per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) behaved differently from other contaminant groups by exhibiting a clear contribution from stormwater runoff in both phases. Though carried out in streams passing through relatively small urban settings, the findings clearly demonstrate that stormwater discharges can impact receiving waters. Of the 50 analyzed contaminants, three exceeded toxicity-based limits in dry weather (DW), seven in wet weather (WW), and twenty in bottom sediments. In the water phase, under DW and WW conditions, the three contaminants with the highest exceedance of toxicity-based limits were Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), Tributyltin (TBT), and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP). In the sediment phase, 4‑tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), Tributyltin (TBT), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were the three compounds with the highest exceedance of toxicity-based limits. Compared to relatively hydrophilic contaminants (e.g., PFAS), hydrophobic organic contaminants, particularly those accumulating in sediments (e.g. phenols, phthalates), posed a greater risk to the aquatic environment with exceedance levels reaching up to 10⁵ times the thresholds. These findings raise concerns about the long-term impact on aquatic environments and highlight the need for mitigation strategies, including regulatory or operational restrictions on the contaminant sources and implementation of stormwater treatment facilities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123847"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144066661","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The fate of cadmium during the hydrolysis and solid-state transformation of iron","authors":"Yining Gao ,&nbsp;Ning Liu ,&nbsp;Fangyuan Meng ,&nbsp;Leheng Dong ,&nbsp;Zhijun Fei ,&nbsp;Manjia Chen ,&nbsp;Chengshuai Liu ,&nbsp;Pan Wu ,&nbsp;Hui Tong","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123840","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123840","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The ubiquitous hydrolysis of Fe(III) ions in nature leads to the formation of ferrihydrite (Fh), which then undergoes solid-state transformation into crystalline mineral phases. However, the impact of this process on the geochemical fate of cadmium (Cd) in aquatic environments is not yet fully understood. This investigation systematically examined the partitioning mechanisms of Cd during the aforementioned processes through extraction techniques and multiple characterization methodologies. The experimental results demonstrated that Fe(III) ions first undergo the diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA) stage, forming loosely bound clusters with high Cd co-precipitation capacity. Upon transitioning to the reaction-limited aggregation (RLA) stage, Fe clusters exhibit increased structural complexity, wherein the expansion of radius of gyration predominantly governs Cd retention. As colloidal Fh develops, surface adsorption becomes the predominant mechanism for Cd sequestration. Throughout solid-state transformation in systems containing 1 mol% Cd, dehydroxylation processes induced acidification, facilitating the progressive liberation of Cd. Conversely, in systems with 10 mol% Cd, significant Cd incorporation induces distortion in the crystalline lattice structure, promoting system alkalinization and, consequently, enhancing Cd immobilization. pH gradient solid-state transformation experiments demonstrated that when initial pH values were below 8, final pH measurements were significantly lower than initial values, and vice versa. pH conditions potentially regulate the speciation of Fe within Fh, ultimately exerting substantial influence on Cd partitioning behavior. In summary, Fh formation beneficially stabilizes Cd, while its subsequent solid-state transformation triggers Cd redistribution.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123840"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144067270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sub-sampling strategies for analysis of small (<20 µm) microplastics in water","authors":"Xingyu Feng,&nbsp;Vishal Manek,&nbsp;Robert C. Andrews,&nbsp;Husein Almuhtaram","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123846","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123846","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Quantification of microplastics (MPs) in drinking water is typically achieved using spectroscopic techniques. However, due to the time-consuming nature of these analyses researchers typically apply sub-sampling strategies whereby particles in small areas of a filter are quantified and subsequently extrapolated to the entire area. This widely applied strategy has not been evaluated in terms of potential extrapolation error despite a wide range of sub-sampling methods having been reported. The current study examined the relationship between sub-sampling and extrapolation accuracy when considering 2–100 µm low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) fragments, with a specific focus on particles &lt;20 µm in size as they are the most abundant and have the potential to exert adverse health impacts. A grid-based random sub-sampling method was developed to serve as a baseline such that extrapolation accuracy could be compared to several previously published methods. Results show that as sub-sampling area increases, error decreases following a power law trend. A minimum sub-sampling threshold was identified (approximately 6–8 % of total area) corresponding to an extrapolation error ranging from 8 to 17 %. Use of a log-normal model to describe particle size distributions was evaluated and found to be applicable to particles &gt;2–5 µm. Findings arising from this study provide insight regarding optimal sub-sampling strategies for the analysis of MP in drinking water.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123846"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144066710","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microbial conversion of methane into single cell protein in a dual-membrane biofilm reactor","authors":"Yicheng Ma ,&nbsp;Tao Liu ,&nbsp;Zhiguo Yuan ,&nbsp;Jianhua Guo","doi":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123838","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.watres.2025.123838","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Single cell protein (SCP, or microbial protein) is a promising alternative food source that could sustainably address the growing demand for proteins. Recently, methane, as the main component of biogas, has been explored as a carbon and energy source for SCP production due to its lower cost and renewability compared to traditional substrates such as carbohydrates. However, a major challenge is how to safely deliver methane and oxygen, and the explosion risk impedes the CH₄-based SCP production. This study designed a dual-membrane biofilm reactor (dMBfR) for SCP production from methane, incorporating hollow fiber membranes to enhance the delivery of methane and oxygen. Over a 240-day operation, methane utilization efficiency reached 100 %, achieving the SCP yield of up to 0.49 g SCP/g CH₄. The reactor also exhibited competitive protein content of 50.2 % and biomass productivity of 506 mg/L/d. Additionally, we evaluated the reactor performance in response to varying aeration modes (open-end <em>versus</em> dead-end) and weekly protein harvest ratios (20 % <em>versus</em> 50 %). Compared to the dead-end aeration mode, the open-end mode led to 1.5-fold higher SCP production rates, 3.5-fold higher nitrogen-based SCP yields, 3.7-fold higher carbon-based SCP yields, and 1.1-fold higher protein content. Moreover, we applied the freeze-drying approach to produce dry SCP products in the reactor. The final SCP products exhibited higher solubility (17.4 %), water holding capacity (5.0 %), and emulsifying stability (93.3 %, after 24 h incubation) compared to typical fish meals, jointly indicative of the high quality of the produced SCP. This work offers valuable insights into CH₄-based SCP production, offering a promising avenue for efficient microbial protein synthesis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":443,"journal":{"name":"Water Research","volume":"283 ","pages":"Article 123838"},"PeriodicalIF":11.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144066709","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}