OpenNano最新文献

{"title":"Entrapment efficiency methodology for lipid nanoparticles – a literature review","authors":"Niklas Baltz ,&nbsp;Regina Scherließ","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100251","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100251","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Lipid nanoparticles have been used for decades to deliver lipophilic drugs. The success of particle formation and drug loading is determined by excipient selection and the production process. Entrapment efficiency (EE) as a measure for process effectiveness and drug load are critical quality attributes of lipid nanoparticles. To determine EE, the nanodispersion must be separated to determine the amount of drug inside the nanoparticles or to measure the amount of un-encapsulated drug in the medium. This review systematically analyses opportunities and challenges of different EE methods. 109 studies were included. The methodology used for EE appears to be chosen on a case-by-case basis and is often reported without a thorough method description. 78 studies (72 %) reported the EE method with enough detail to readily attempt experimental reproduction. This review underlines the need for thorough reporting of the principles and method used to determine entrapment efficiency to allow data interpretation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100251"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144535638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of unsaturated fatty acids on the topical delivery of caspofungin ufasomes: In vitro/ Ex vivo evaluation and anti-fungal study against Candida albicans","authors":"Sumayah Al-Mahmood ,&nbsp;Nawal Ayash Rajab","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100250","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100250","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Cutaneous candidiasis presents a considerable challenge in today’s medical landscape, particularly for patients with weakened immune systems or chronic illnesses. As antifungal resistance continues to rise, the development of new topical therapies has become increasingly urgent. Caspofungin (CSP), an echinocandin antifungal, exhibits fungicidal activity against Candida species by inhibiting β-1,3-<span>d</span>-glucan synthase, a key enzyme in fungal cell wall synthesis. However, its poor stability and requirement for intravenous administration limit its clinical application. To address these limitations, novel formulations such as ufasomes (unsaturated fatty acid vesicles) have been developed to enhance caspofungin's stability and skin penetration. In this study, ufasomes were prepared using three oils: oleic acid, linoleic acid, and palmitoleic acid, along with caspofungin and cholesterol, using the thin-film method. Among the formulations, F34, composed of 500 mg palmitoleic acid and 10 mg cholesterol, exhibited promising results. It demonstrated a particle size (PS) of 87.65± 2.65 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.22 ± 0.00, a zeta potential (ZP) of -7.46± 0.4 mV, a drug content of 97 ± 1.34 %, and an encapsulation efficiency (EE %) of 92 ± 0.82 %. Furthermore, the optimized formulation F34 showed a sustained drug release of 81.5 ± 0.4 over 600 min (10 h) compared to 100 %±0.01 of caspofungin. The permeation of F34 in 600 min (10 h) was 94 %±0.81 compared to the caspofungin 87.85 %±0.85. The antifungal activity showed that the inhibition zone diameter, MIC and MBC for caspofungin-loaded ufasomes was 29 mm±0.8, 0.153 μg/mL±0.01, 0.283 μg/mL±0.02 compared to 25 mm±0.8, 0.214 μg/mL±0.01, 0.409±0.01 for pure caspofungin. The histopathological study revealed a positive response towards the optimized formulation. In conclusion, this optimized formulation holds potential as a novel therapeutic approach for treating topical fungal infections.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100250"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144501250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sunlight-active Bi2O2(OH)(NO3)-AgBr photocatalyst for degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye and disinfection of E. coli bacteria","authors":"Ruethaithip Dulyasucharit ,&nbsp;Laksanawadee Saikhao ,&nbsp;Sutthidech Preecharram ,&nbsp;Nutthachai Prongmanee ,&nbsp;Wipada Chaiyachet ,&nbsp;Orapan Intharaksa ,&nbsp;Suwat Nanan","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100249","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100249","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A sunlight-driven Bi₂O₂(OH)(NO₃)-AgBr heterostructure photocatalyst (denoted as BiON-AgBr) was synthesized by a two-step route combining hydrothermal and chemical precipitation methods. Firstly, the pristine BiON was prepared, via two types of solvent, by using a hydrothermal method. In the case that water was used as a solvent, the BiON.W photocatalyst with a pine-like structure was obtained. However, by using mixed solvent (comprising ethanol: water of 20:80), the BiON.M photocatalyst with a flower-like morphology was achieved. Secondly, the binary BiON-AgBr heterostructure was then constructed using a chemical precipitation technique. Accordingly, the photocatalytic performance of the prepared BiON-AgBr photocatalyst was evaluated through the photodegradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye under natural sunlight irradiation. The synthesized BiON-AgBr photocatalyst still exhibits high photocatalytic efficiency, even after three consecutive cycles of use. Trapping experiment revealed that the superoxide anion radicals (^•O₂⁻) play the most important role in RhB removal. The result suggested a Z-scheme mechanism based on AgBr/Ag/BiON. The formation of metallic silver (Ag⁰), upon sunlight illumination, was proved as the evidence shown in the XRD pattern of the used photocatalyst. The synergistic effect of the Z-scheme heterojunction and the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of silver metal results in the considerable enhancement of the sunlight-driven photodegradation of RhB dye and the remarkable improvement of the disinfection of <em>E. coli</em> bacteria.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100249"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-06-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144307060","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Green biogenic fabrication of AgNPs derived from Pulicaria jaubertii leaf extract: Investigation of antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties","authors":"Ansam Wadia Alshameri ,&nbsp;Bilal Abdualgalil ,&nbsp;Mahdi Mutahar","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100248","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100248","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>\"Plant-mediated synthesis of nanomaterials offers an eco-friendly and cost-effective alternative for biomedical applications. In this study, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were green-synthesized using a leaf extract of <em>Pulicaria jaubertii</em>, which served as both a reducing and stabilizing agent. The biophysical characterization of synthesized AgNPs confirmed their successful fabrication through Ultraviolet-Visible spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, and Scanning Electron Microscope- Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis. The synthesized AgNPs demonstrated potent antibacterial activity against gram-negative (<em>Escherichia coli</em>) and gram-positive (<em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>) pathogens, as evidenced by agar well diffusion, time-kill, and antibiofilm assays. Notably, the nanoparticles exhibited minimal cytotoxicity toward Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells and Human Red Blood Cells, underscoring their biocompatibility. These findings highlight the potential of <em>Pulicaria jaubertii</em>-derived AgNPs as promising candidates for antimicrobial therapies and biomedical applications.\"</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100248"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144223271","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of Chitosan-Encapsulated Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) Essential Oil Nanoemulsion for Fruit Edible Coating","authors":"Panji Setya Utama Putra ,&nbsp;Damar Rastri Adhika ,&nbsp;Gita Genecya ,&nbsp;Muhammad Samman Al Madanie ,&nbsp;Lia Amelia Tresna Wulan Asri","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100246","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100246","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Agricultural and fishery products generally have a limited shelf life since these products are at high risk of experiencing changes in sensory properties in a fairly short time due to oxidation, enzymatic reactions, and microbial activity. Therefore, a food preservation system is needed to maintain its quality for longer. One preservation method for post-harvest products such as fruits and vegetables is edible coating. Edible coatings can be developed using biodegradable polymers derived from polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and their derivatives. Chitosan is a type of biopolymer that is commonly derived from the exoskeletons of marine animals such as shrimp and it possesses good antimicrobial properties. In addition, the development of food packaging technology. This study aims to develop and evaluate edible coatings that contain nano-chitosan and lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsions as antioxidant and antimicrobial agents for fruit packaging. The synthesized lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion size was less than 100 nm and had good stability with a below 10% size change during 56 days of storage. Lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion had a high antioxidant activity, as indicated by the low IC₅₀ value in the DPPH reagent test. The combination of lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion and chitosan as an edible coating had high antimicrobial activity, as indicated by the large inhibition zone in <em>Bacillus cereus</em> and <em>Escherichia coli</em> bacteria. Edible coating implementation on unpeeled banana fruit was evaluated through various tests such as pH, hardness, weight loss, and color changes. These tests showed some improvement in fruit preservation using nanoemulsion-based edible coatings treatment. The bananas were observed for 11 days and showed that the edible coating made from the combination of chitosan and lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion can delay the ripening process of fruits, maintain firmness, and reduce weight loss. The best results for unpeeled banana preservation were obtained from edible coating with variations of lemongrass essential oil nanoemulsion and chitosan with a ratio of 2:1.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100246"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143924808","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhanced Localized Periodontitis Treatment with Azithromycin-Loaded Niosomal Thermosensitive Gels","authors":"Kunchorn Kerdmanee ,&nbsp;Chuencheewit Thongsiri ,&nbsp;Nuttawut Supachawaroj ,&nbsp;Sucharat Limsitthichaikoon","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100247","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100247","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease requiring localized drug delivery for sustained therapeutic action. Conventional treatments face challenges such as a rapid drug clearance and poor bioavailability. This study develops and evaluates an azithromycin-loaded niosomal thermoresponsive gel (AZG) to enhance drug retention and treatment efficacy. Azithromycin-loaded niosomes (AZN) were optimized using a 3² full factorial design with Span 60 and cholesterol, achieving nanoscale size, stable zeta potential, and high drug encapsulation. The optimized AZN was incorporated into a poloxamer 407-hyaluronic acid gel, ensuring in situ gelation and prolonged drug retention. AZG exhibited favorable gelation, biocompatibility, accelerated wound closure, enhanced cell proliferation, and significant anti-inflammatory effects (twofold IL-1β and sixfold TNF-α reduction, p &lt; 0.05). By integrating sustained drug release with antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, AZG presents a promising adjunctive therapy for periodontitis, addressing key limitations of existing treatments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100247"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143924719","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Transdermal drug delivery system: A comprehensive review of innovative strategies, applications, and regulatory perspectives","authors":"Andrea Crasta ,&nbsp;Tanvi Painginkar ,&nbsp;Amatha Sreedevi ,&nbsp;Sachin Dattram Pawar ,&nbsp;Muddukrishna Badamane Sathyanarayana ,&nbsp;S.G. Vasantharaju ,&nbsp;Riyaz Ali M. Osmani ,&nbsp;Gundawar Ravi","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100245","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100245","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) is a very successful and suitable approach for drug delivery because of its advantages over other drug delivery systems. The main advantages of this technique include sustained release, bypassing first-pass metabolism, and enhancing patient compliance. However, the skin is composed of several layers through which the drug must pass through to enter the systemic circulation for therapeutic activity and its limitations include poor skin permeability. Effective TDDS must consider drug properties (molecular weight, solubility, and lipophilicity), vehicle composition, and skin characteristics (hydration, temperature, and regional permeability) to overcome these limitations. Chemical permeation enhancers interfere with the lipid matrix of the stratum corneum, and natural permeation enhancers, including essential oils and terpenes, provide other alternatives. Recently, multiple reservoir patches have been developed for the delivery of multiple active ingredients and electronic TDDS patches for automatic drug release. Despite such advancements, challenges persist in the form of skin irritation, the need for special equipment, and the delivery of large molecules requiring additional study. Future research must aim for the development of hypoallergenic adhesives, the optimization of microneedle safety, and the investigation of new nanocarriers to increase the efficacy of TDDSs and patient outcomes. This review explores the various strategies to enhance drug permeation by TDDS and aims to describe their regulatory requirements according to USFDA guidelines and EMA guidelines as well as their comparison, and highlighted various applications of transdermal drug delivery systems in medicine, patents and clinical trials.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 100245"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-04-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144089665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anti-cancer activity of Kaempferia galanga L.–loaded polydopamine nanoparticles against colorectal cancer","authors":"Paweena Dana ,&nbsp;Anukul Taweechaipaisankul ,&nbsp;Yodsathorn Wongngam ,&nbsp;Suttipun Sungsuwan ,&nbsp;Walailuk Chonniyom ,&nbsp;Saksorn Klibaim ,&nbsp;Prattana Tanyapanyachon ,&nbsp;Monthira Rattanatayarom ,&nbsp;Onuma Phoraksa ,&nbsp;Udom Asawapirom ,&nbsp;Primana Punnakitikashem ,&nbsp;Duangporn Polpanich ,&nbsp;Nattika Saengkrit","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100242","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100242","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Kaempferia galanga</em> L. (KGL) is an aromatic ginger that has been used as a medicinal plant. Specifically, KGL possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-bacterial, and anti-cancer effects. However, the key component of KGL, ethyl <em>p</em>‑methoxy cinnamate (EPMC), is insoluble in water, resulting in low bioavailability. Hence, a nano-drug delivery system is used to enhance KGL activities. This study aimed to employ polydopamine (PDA) nanoparticles as a carrier for KGL delivery to improve its anti-cancer activity against colorectal cancer cells. PDA- and PDA nanoparticle–loaded KGL (PDA-KGL) were synthesized using a spontaneous oxidation process. The physicochemical properties of the PDA-KGL were characterized by dynamic light scattering methods. The anti-cancer activity of PDA-KGL was evaluated in HT-29, a colorectal cancer (CRC) cell line. Average hydrodynamic sizes of PDA and PDA-KGL were 236.2 ± 1.2 and 316.6 ± 2.0 nm, respectively, and the zeta potential of PDA and PDA-KGL were -23.0 ± 0.4 and -39.5 ± 0.6 mV, respectively. The morphology of PDA-KGL observed under TEM was spherical in shape. Anti-proliferative activity was monitored in HT-29 cells using MTT and 3D tumor spheroid assays. PDA-KGL strongly inhibited cell viability of HT-29 cells compared to free KGL and PDA treatments. PDA-KGL induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells as shown by an Annexin V binding assay. In addition, PDA-KGL suppressed the invasive ability of HT-29 cells compared to free KGL or PDA, which was determined by a transwell invasion assay. Taken together, it implies that PDA-KGL might be used as a nano-drug delivery approach for colorectal cancer treatment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100242"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143739837","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhanced immunomodulator activity of Carthamus tinctorius (L.) extracts, a traditional medicine using nanostructured lipid carrier approach","authors":"Rachmat Mauludin ,&nbsp;Insan Nurul Padjar ,&nbsp;Neng Fisheri Kurniati ,&nbsp;Ratna Annisa Utami","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100244","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100244","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Considering the potential of <em>Carthamus tinctorius (</em>L.<em>)</em> (CT) for therapeutic purposes mainly as immunomodulator as well as the ability of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) to protect phytochemicals from degradation and improving their solubility, the objective of this study was design, optimization, and characterization CT-loaded NLC (CT<img>NLC) system as an immunomodulator. The NLCs were prepared using hot homogenization techniques, which were later subjected to ultrasonication according to the Box Behnken design. The NLCs were characterized in terms of polydispersity index (PDI), particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (%EE), and surface morphologies. The immunomodulatory activity was carried out by measuring phagocytic activity using carbon clearance method, organ index, antibody titres using indirect hemagglutination test and level of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The CT extracts (300 mg/kg), CT-NLC (100 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg) were administered orally. Levamisole (3 mg/kg) and Methylprednisolone (16 mg/kg) was used as standard drug. The selected CT<img>NLC displayed a spherical particle with an average of ∼199.6 nm, polydispersity index of ∼0.305 and zeta potential of ∼-27.4 mV. %EE ∼74.04 % was attained. TEM images exhibited nanoparticles to be non-aggregated and in spherical shape. CTNLC treatment significantly increased the phagocytic index, antibody titres and level of IFN-γ but did not influence organ index compared to free CT. <em>Carthamus tinctorius (</em>L.<em>)</em> was successfully encapsulated into nanostructured lipid carriers. The developed NLC exhibited desirable parameters and was found to further improve immunomodulation efficacy. NLC has the potential to significantly enhance the efficacy of CT.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100244"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143697055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development and evaluation of drug-loaded niosomes fabricated by flow chemistry: A novel vortex tube reactor approach","authors":"Kampanart Huanbutta ,&nbsp;Kittipat Suwanpitak ,&nbsp;Possawee Ponlakorn ,&nbsp;Phatsawi Sonkongdang ,&nbsp;Isariya Kongklai ,&nbsp;Kunlathida Luangpraditkun ,&nbsp;Tistaya Semangoen ,&nbsp;Tanikan Sangnim","doi":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100243","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.onano.2025.100243","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Continuous flow technology has been increasingly applied in the fabrication of nanoparticle drug delivery systems due to its ability to provide enhanced process control, scalability, and improved uniformity in particle size. Therefore, this study aims to utilize a newly designed flow chemistry vortex tube reactor for the preparation of ketoconazole-loaded niosomes, with the goal of enhancing mixing efficiency and increasing production rates. The experiment was designed using a central composite design to investigate the effects of key preparation parameters, including total flow rate, surfactant concentration, and cholesterol content, on particle size, size distribution, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading percentage. The optimized formulation (Span 80 = 25 mg, Cholesterol = 50 mg) was achieved using a total flow rate of 20 mL/min. The resulting niosomes exhibited a particle size of 212.3 nm, a zeta potential of 40.2 mV, a polydispersity index of 0.282, an entrapment efficiency of 50.84 %, a drug loading of 0.58 %, and a productivity of 70.67 mg/min. Moreover, ketoconazole-loaded niosomes prepared using the newly designed flow chemistry vortex tube reactor demonstrated prolonged inhibition of <em>Candida albicans</em> growth compared to ketoconazole solution. A comparison with batch synthesis revealed that flow chemistry produces smaller particles with a narrower size distribution and significantly improved productivity. These findings indicate the potential for further development of the vortex reactor for industrial-scale production of nanovesicular drug delivery systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":37785,"journal":{"name":"OpenNano","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100243"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143724154","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}