International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer最新文献

{"title":"Experimental study on pyrolysis coking characteristics of n-decane in additively manufacturing channel under supercritical conditions","authors":"Zhuofan Yin ,&nbsp;Bensheng Xie ,&nbsp;Quan Zhu ,&nbsp;Huaizhi Han","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127901","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127901","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this study, the experiments about supercritical hydrocarbon fuel in additively manufacturing (AM) and conventionally mechanical manufactured (CM) channel with different heating power and mass flow rates have been researched. Random roughness height has a significant impact on pyrolysis coking. The results reveal that the total coking amount increases with increasing heating power and decreases with increasing mass flow rate both in CM channel and AM channel. In addition, when the heating power increases from 0.8 kW to 1.6 kW, the coking amount in the machining channel increases by 60.70 mg, while that in the AM channel increases by 39.51 mg. When the mass flow rate increases from 0.8 g/s to 1.2 g/s, the coking amount in the machining channel decreases by 39.90 mg, whereas the AM channel experiences a decrease of 25.45 mg. Comparatively, the AM channel exhibits lower wall temperatures and reduced total coking amounts compared to the CM channel. From the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) results, the coke topography in the CM channel is mainly filamentous carbon, while the coke in the AM channel is mainly amorphous carbon. Raman spectra results show that the coke in AM channel exhibits a higher I_D/I_G, which is more disordering than that in CM channel. Temperature programmed oxidation (TPO) profiles reveal that the coke in AM channel has a lower oxidative activity temperature than that in CM channel. Overall, AM channel has better heat exchange performance than CM channel. Thus, AM channel has great application prospects in aircraft.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127901"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Magnetic field-induced thermal regulation in composite phase change materials for lithium-ion battery","authors":"Huicun Gu ,&nbsp;Zhengchen Zhu ,&nbsp;Yongbiao Mu ,&nbsp;Quanyan Man ,&nbsp;Zijian Qiu ,&nbsp;Lin Zeng","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127887","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127887","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>High-energy-density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) encounter substantial thermal management challenges, especially during high-rate charge-discharge operations. Phase change materials (PCMs), known for their exceptional latent heat storage and temperature regulation properties, are widely used to mitigate thermal risks and enhance safety. In this study, we introduce an innovative strategy utilizing magnetic field-assisted alignment to regulate thermally conductive magnetic additives in composite phase change materials (CPCMs), enabling their self-assembly into ordered, continuous heat conduction networks. This aligned microstructure markedly enhances the thermal conductivity and operational stability of the CPCMs. Compared to non-aligned CPCMs, the magnetically aligned variants show a significant improvement in phase change reliability, with heat absorption and release profile similarity rising from 89.3 % to 95.8 % after 30 thermal cycles. Under stringent 3 C discharge conditions, the peak battery temperature decreases by 40.7 °C, and temperature fluctuations are limited to 0.3 °C, with no detectable phase change medium leakage. Additionally, multiphysics simulations confirm that a highly ordered, interconnected thermally conductive framework significantly improves effective heat transfer. This study proposes a scalable and promising strategy to enhance CPCM thermal management performance through magnetic field-guided structural engineering, providing a novel approach for safer next-generation high-power lithium-ion battery operation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127887"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216921","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A-priori evaluation of sub-grid scale heat flux models in large eddy simulation for low to high Prandtl numbers","authors":"Magnus Schweiger ,&nbsp;Markus Klein ,&nbsp;Francisco Alcántara-Ávila ,&nbsp;Sergio Hoyas ,&nbsp;Josef Hasslberger","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127869","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127869","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The performance of sub-grid scale heat flux closure models is investigated in the context of large eddy simulation. The study is based on filtered direct numerical simulation data of a thermal channel flow for various Prandtl numbers, where temperature is transported as a passive scalar. Three-dimensional and two-dimensional filtering of the direct numerical simulation data is carried out based on a diffusion-based filtering method. The gradient diffusion hypothesis model and Clark’s gradient model (CGM) are investigated in the a-priori analysis, representing a functional and a structural sub-grid scale model, respectively. The sub-grid scale models are compared to the exact sub-grid scale heat flux term by evaluating the alignment, correlation coefficient, and isotropy ratio for different filter widths. It can be observed that the generally good performance of CGM deteriorates from low to high Prandtl numbers. Regions where CGM shows deficits can be localized by a sub-grid activity sensor. In addition, the near-wall behavior of the sub-grid scale heat flux and CGM are investigated. The near-wall scaling of CGM also depends on the near-wall scaling of the filter width. The correct near-wall scaling of CGM can be achieved by a two-dimensional deconvolution formulation in the wall parallel directions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127869"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216924","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Buffering heat fluctuation of IGBT power electronic modules using phase change material-based thermal management for wind power generation","authors":"Shuai Zhang,&nbsp;Yuying Yan","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127903","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127903","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power electronic module is an essential component of the converter system for wind power generation. However, it suffers from the heat fluctuation induced by transient output power from the wind turbulence, which makes it vulnerable and easy to fail. In this study, we developed a phase change material (PCM)-based thermal management solution whose structure is simple and does not change the existing heat sinks. PCM absorbs most heat when the power loss surges, but its temperature stays stable owing to the solid-liquid phase transition. That reduces the peak junction temperature, and since the decrease in peak temperature is larger than that in the valley temperature, the heat fluctuation of chips is buffered. This solution decreases heat fluctuation by 8.7 °C at most and has the best buffering performance where heat fluctuation is largest. The melting fraction of PCM does not exceed 1 during the thermal management process, indicating that the PCM can work sustainably. Different types of PCM were examined, and the results indicate that PCM2’s melting fraction responds more sensitively to power loss and absorbs more power loss as the latent heat energy, thus has better buffering performance than PCM1. The lifetime of the IGBT module is also predicted and is extended significantly. The PCM-based thermal management solution developed in this study is a promising approach to improve the robustness and reduce the maintenance cost of the IGBT modules in wind power generation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127903"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216983","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical analysis of the effect of stationary laser beam properties on Al-Si coating mixing in 22MnB5 steel","authors":"Emanuele Fulco ,&nbsp;Donato Coviello ,&nbsp;Donato Sorgente","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127899","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127899","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents a numerical investigation of molten pool dynamics and coating material mixing under stationary laser irradiation, using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model to analyse contamination effects and the resulting melt pool geometry with a fixed laser beam relative to the workpiece. The model considers a 1.6 mm-thick 22MnB5 steel coated on both sides with a 30 µm-thick Al-Si coating. A grid independency analysis, performed with mesh sizes from 15 µm to 120 µm, showed that mesh sizes at least matching the Al-Si coating thickness are required for accurate representation of fluid dynamics and contamination effects in terms of average Al content and volume percentage of the fused zone contaminated by the coating material. A numerical investigation was carried out to evaluate how variations in laser beam waist radius (0.225, 0.3, and 0.375 mm) and defocusing distance (-0.8 mm, 0, and +0.8 mm) influence the melt pool geometry and the Al-Si coating contamination in 22MnB5 steel. Results indicated that, under positive defocusing conditions, a larger beam waist radius, that is the radius of the laser beam at the focal point, favoured the formation of a <em>Y-shaped</em> keyhole geometry and contributed to lower Al-Si contamination levels in the melt pool. Higher contamination levels were observed in the simulations with a beam waist radius of 0.225 mm, compared to the cases with 0.3 mm and 0.375 mm, indicating an inverse relationship between beam waist radius and coating contamination.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127899"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216984","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Generalizable physical descriptors of pool boiling heat transfer from unsupervised learning of images","authors":"Lige Zhang ,&nbsp;Tejaswi Soori ,&nbsp;Manohar Bongarala ,&nbsp;Changgen Li ,&nbsp;Han Hu ,&nbsp;Justin A Weibel ,&nbsp;Ying Sun","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127894","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127894","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Boiling processes are notoriously difficult to analyze via visual inspection due to the complex interactions between the vapor bubbles and the surface. Unsupervised machine learning (ML) is a powerful tool to uncover physical insights into the bubble dynamics during boiling from image data. In this study, principal component analysis (PCA), an unsupervised dimensionality reduction algorithm, is used to extract new physical descriptors of boiling heat transfer from pool boiling experimental images without any labeling and training. Experiments are conducted with different working fluids and heater surfaces to investigate the effect on the bubble morphology and subsequently on the physical descriptors identified through unsupervised ML. The dominant frequency and amplitude deduced from the Fourier transform of the time series of the first principal component (PC) are compared against physical parameters such as bubble size, bubble count, and vapor area fraction. The new physical descriptors derived from PCA show a positive correlation with conventional parameters related to bubble morphology, as demonstrated by linear regression analysis. Pearson Correlation Coefficients further confirm the strong correlations between dominant amplitude and both bubble size and vapor area fraction, as well as between dominant frequency and bubble count. These strong correlations hold across multiple different working fluids (water and HFE 7100) with different heater surfaces (plain and microstructured surfaces made of copper and silicon materials), demonstrating the potential for these extracted physical descriptors to generalize and act as a surrogate to conventional physical descriptors. This unsupervised learning approach offers a robust alternative to traditional pool boiling analyses or supervised ML approaches that rely on time-consuming manual labeling involving bubble identification and segmentation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127894"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216985","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Design and intelligent optimization of TSV-based embedded microchannel heatsinks in 2.5D Packaging","authors":"Dongqing Cang ,&nbsp;Zixuan Dong ,&nbsp;Shitao Lv ,&nbsp;Chencan Zhou ,&nbsp;Zhikuang Cai ,&nbsp;Peng Zhang ,&nbsp;Haiyan Sun ,&nbsp;Jicong Zhao","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127908","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127908","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the continuous advancement of integrated circuits, chip density and miniaturization have increased significantly, resulting in a substantial rise in on-chip temperatures. Customized thermal management strategies tailored to different chiplet packaging configurations have become crucial. At present, microchannel heatsinks (MCHS) are widely employed to improve heat dissipation in multi-chiplets packaging. In order to improve the heat dissipation capability of multi-chiplets packaging, embedded MCHS has been extensively studied in recent years. However, embedded MCHS will inevitably affect the routing within the interposer. In this study, we propose an innovative heat dissipation approach that integrates MCHS within TSV(Through-Silicon-Via) interposer. By embedding TSV into the walls of the MCHS, this method significantly enhances heat dissipation while maintaining routing integrity. The novel structure in this study is defined as T-MCHS. Firstly, we verified that the proposed design exhibits better heat dissipation capability and a higher friction factor compared to the traditional structure. Subsequently, the structure is optimized using an enhanced NSGA-II (Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II) algorithm. To enhance computational efficiency, the simulation model is simplified during the optimization process, and an ANN(Artificial Neural Network) surrogate model is constructed based on simulation data to replace time-consuming simulations, thereby enhancing optimization efficiency. Finally, performance validation is conducted through extensive simulations. The optimized T-MCHS demonstrated significantly enhanced heat dissipation performance while effectively reducing pumping power. Compared to other jobs, this design is able to achieve a greater convective heat transfer coefficient by sacrificing less pumping power. Additionally, stress uniformity across the substrate is improved, contributing to a significant enhancement in overall reliability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127908"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A detailed numerical investigation on evaporation and combustion of isolated n-heptane and n-dodecane droplet in argon-oxygen atmosphere","authors":"Surya Balusamy,&nbsp;Ki Yong Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127895","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127895","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper presents a comprehensive numerical framework for simulating the evaporation and combustion of isolated fuel droplets using the Lagrangian–Eulerian method in a three-dimensional computational domain. The study has been carried out in two phases, evaporation and combustion. For evaporation, the effect of temperature, pressure, gravity and inert gas as ambient gas is numerically investigated. The numerical results of the squared normalized droplet diameter <span><math><msup><mrow><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>d</mi><mo>/</mo><msub><mrow><mi>d</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow></msub><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msup></math></span> with respect to time (<span><math><mrow><mi>t</mi><mo>/</mo><msubsup><mrow><mi>d</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msubsup></mrow></math></span>) were compared with the experimental data of other researchers and showed good agreement. The numerical simulation was performed for the combustion of isolated <em>n</em>-heptane and <em>n</em>-dodecane with the initial droplet diameter of <span><math><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>05</mn><mspace></mspace><mtext>mm</mtext></mrow></math></span> and the ambient temperature (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>T</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>a</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>) in the range of <span><math><mrow><mn>750</mn><mi>K</mi><mo>−</mo><mn>1000</mn><mi>K</mi></mrow></math></span> and ambient pressure (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>P</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>a</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>) of <span><math><mrow><mn>2</mn><mi>M</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>a</mi><mo>−</mo><mn>3</mn><mi>M</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>a</mi></mrow></math></span>. This study investigated the two-stage ignition process and the effect of argon-oxygen mixture as ambient gas on the auto-ignition delay time for <em>n</em>-heptane and <em>n</em>-dodecane fuel droplet. A detailed kinetic mechanism (DKM) and the perfectly stirred reactor (PSR) model were utilized to analyze the effect of ambient gases of air (AG-1) and argon-oxygen mixture (AG-2). The results showed that cases using AG-2 as the ambient gas exhibited a stronger cool flame and an increased auto-ignition delay time at moderate ambient temperatures (<span><math><mrow><msub><mrow><mi>T</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>a</mi></mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>800</mn><mo>−</mo><mn>850</mn><mspace></mspace><mi>K</mi></mrow></math></span>) compared to AG-1. Conversely, the auto-ignition delay time was decreased at elevated ambient temperatures <span><math><mrow><mo>(</mo><msub><mrow><mi>T</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>a</mi></mrow></msub><mo>&gt;</mo><mo>=</mo><mn>900</mn><mi>K</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow></math></span>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127895"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216925","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Spatio-temporal scale matching for grooved cooling channel under pulsating flow","authors":"Yingting Tang,&nbsp;Zhaoguang Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127883","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127883","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The present study numerically and experimentally characterizes the heat transfer performance of a grooved channel under pulsating flow, with Strouhal number ranging from 0.04 to 0.8 and groove depth ratio between 1/4 and 1. The time-averaged Reynolds number of the trapezoidal pulsation profile is maintained at 200 and the temporal maximum is limited at 1000. The augmentation of heat transfer is attributed to both enhancement in flow convection intensity and improvement of thermal mixing efficiency. The former is illustrated by the asymmetry of kinetic energy change that arises from the loss of complementarity between wall shear stress and viscous entropy generation. The latter is explained by the reboost of thermal entropy generation that results from the transverse mixing between near-wall hot fluids and mainstream coolant. There exist significant phase lags and waveform distortion between the channel Nusselt number and the inlet velocity profile, indicating that the dominant mechanism for heat transfer enhancement transitions from mass convection at the pulse-on stage to thermal mixing at the pulse-off stage. Further scale-matching analysis reveals that the greatest Nusselt number improvement of 317% is obtained at the Strouhal number around 0.2 and the groove depth ratio of 1/2. With a penalty of 324% friction factor ratio, the thermal enhancement factor is still improved to 2.14. The optimal pulsation frequency that matches the characteristic time of cavity vortex growth and the optimal groove dimension that matches the characteristic size of cavity vortex expansion lead to the maximum kinetic energy residual and the minimum thermal entropy generation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127883"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216988","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of a predictive multi-material and multi-physics model based on volume-of-fluid for simulating wire laser additive manufacturing process","authors":"Haijie Chang ,&nbsp;Yabo Jia ,&nbsp;Hans Boungomba ,&nbsp;Hakim Naceur ,&nbsp;Laurent Dubar","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127893","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2025.127893","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wire Laser Additive Manufacturing (WLAM) has been widely applied in production technologies for creation of complex geometry and repairing. This process involves numerous coupled physical phenomena, such as laser-material interaction, phase transformations (solid and liquid), fluid dynamics within the melt pool, and heat transfer, making it extremely complex to analyze and observe experimentally. Recently, the use of a wire made from a metal different from the substrate has gained in popularity to create functionally graded material. This approach is particularly attractive for adding new functionalities to existing parts or enhancing surface mechanical properties. However, the numerical simulation of the multi-material WLAM process presents significant challenges due to the differences in the thermophysical properties of different metals. To address this challenge, we present a predictive multi-physics solver developed within the OpenFOAM software based on the volume-of-fluid (VOF) method. The solver considers the conservation of momentum, energy, and mass, the mixture of multiple material, ray-tracing, and heat exchange with air to simulate the multi-material WLAM process. Finally, the proposed model has been validated against the numerical reference and experimental results, the comparisons show the proposed model is capable of predicting the bead geometry for different process parameters without calibration of the heat source or mass addition.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":336,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer","volume":"255 ","pages":"Article 127893"},"PeriodicalIF":5.8,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145216982","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}