Open Mind最新文献

{"title":"Bayesian Reinforcement Learning With Limited Cognitive Load.","authors":"Dilip Arumugam, Mark K Ho, Noah D Goodman, Benjamin Van Roy","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00132","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00132","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>All biological and artificial agents must act given limits on their ability to acquire and process information. As such, a general theory of adaptive behavior should be able to account for the complex interactions between an agent's learning history, decisions, and capacity constraints. Recent work in computer science has begun to clarify the principles that shape these dynamics by bridging ideas from <i>reinforcement learning</i>, <i>Bayesian decision-making</i>, and <i>rate-distortion theory</i>. This body of work provides an account of <i>capacity-limited Bayesian reinforcement learning</i>, a unifying normative framework for modeling the effect of processing constraints on learning and action selection. Here, we provide an accessible review of recent algorithms and theoretical results in this setting, paying special attention to how these ideas can be applied to studying questions in the cognitive and behavioral sciences.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"395-438"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045037/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140872440","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evidence for Infant-directed Speech Preference Is Consistent Across Large-scale, Multi-site Replication and Meta-analysis.","authors":"Martin Zettersten, Christopher Cox, Christina Bergmann, Angeline Sin Mei Tsui, Melanie Soderstrom, Julien Mayor, Rebecca A Lundwall, Molly Lewis, Jessica E Kosie, Natalia Kartushina, Riccardo Fusaroli, Michael C Frank, Krista Byers-Heinlein, Alexis K Black, Maya B Mathur","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00134","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00134","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>There is substantial evidence that infants prefer infant-directed speech (IDS) to adult-directed speech (ADS). The strongest evidence for this claim has come from two large-scale investigations: i) a community-augmented meta-analysis of published behavioral studies and ii) a large-scale multi-lab replication study. In this paper, we aim to improve our understanding of the IDS preference and its boundary conditions by combining and comparing these two data sources across key population and design characteristics of the underlying studies. Our analyses reveal that both the meta-analysis and multi-lab replication show moderate effect sizes (<i>d</i> ≈ 0.35 for each estimate) and that both of these effects persist when relevant study-level moderators are added to the models (i.e., experimental methods, infant ages, and native languages). However, while the overall effect size estimates were similar, the two sources diverged in the effects of key moderators: both infant age and experimental method predicted IDS preference in the multi-lab replication study, but showed no effect in the meta-analysis. These results demonstrate that the IDS preference generalizes across a variety of experimental conditions and sampling characteristics, while simultaneously identifying key differences in the empirical picture offered by each source individually and pinpointing areas where substantial uncertainty remains about the influence of theoretically central moderators on IDS preference. Overall, our results show how meta-analyses and multi-lab replications can be used in tandem to understand the robustness and generalizability of developmental phenomena.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"439-461"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045035/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140866615","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"On the Role of Loopholes in Polite Communication: Linking Subjectivity and Pragmatic Inference","authors":"Nicole Gotzner, Gregory Scontras","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00133","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00133","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Existing proposals on the attenuating uses of indirect, negated expressions (e.g., not happy to mean sad) agree that speakers exploit indirectness for pragmatic purposes but differ on the underlying sources they attribute to these uses. Here, we synthesize existing proposals via adjective subjectivity, which operationalizes the notion of loopholes for plausible deniability. We present experimental evidence that the degree of subjectivity of an adjective predicts the degree to which participants strengthen the negated adjective’s meaning, but only if the adjective under consideration has an evaluatively-positive meaning. This finding indicates that speakers may intentionally use negation to leave themselves the option to retract the implicated face-threatening meaning if openly challenged.","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"94 6","pages":"500-510"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140777017","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Preliminary Evidence for Global Properties in Human Listeners During Natural Auditory Scene Perception.","authors":"Margaret A McMullin, Rohit Kumar, Nathan C Higgins, Brian Gygi, Mounya Elhilali, Joel S Snyder","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00131","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00131","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Theories of auditory and visual scene analysis suggest the perception of scenes relies on the identification and segregation of objects within it, resembling a detail-oriented processing style. However, a more global process may occur while analyzing scenes, which has been evidenced in the visual domain. It is our understanding that a similar line of research has not been explored in the auditory domain; therefore, we evaluated the contributions of high-level global and low-level acoustic information to auditory scene perception. An additional aim was to increase the field's ecological validity by using and making available a new collection of high-quality auditory scenes. Participants rated scenes on 8 global properties (e.g., open vs. enclosed) and an acoustic analysis evaluated which low-level features predicted the ratings. We submitted the acoustic measures and average ratings of the global properties to separate exploratory factor analyses (EFAs). The EFA of the acoustic measures revealed a seven-factor structure explaining 57% of the variance in the data, while the EFA of the global property measures revealed a two-factor structure explaining 64% of the variance in the data. Regression analyses revealed each global property was predicted by at least one acoustic variable (R² = 0.33-0.87). These findings were extended using deep neural network models where we examined correlations between human ratings of global properties and deep embeddings of two computational models: an object-based model and a scene-based model. The results support that participants' ratings are more strongly explained by a global analysis of the scene setting, though the relationship between scene perception and auditory perception is multifaceted, with differing correlation patterns evident between the two models. Taken together, our results provide evidence for the ability to perceive auditory scenes from a global perspective. Some of the acoustic measures predicted ratings of global scene perception, suggesting representations of auditory objects may be transformed through many stages of processing in the ventral auditory stream, similar to what has been proposed in the ventral visual stream. These findings and the open availability of our scene collection will make future studies on perception, attention, and memory for natural auditory scenes possible.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"333-365"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990578/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140872348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multiple Object Tracking Without Pre-attentive Indexing.","authors":"Shubhamkar Ayare, Nisheeth Srivastava","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00128","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00128","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Multiple object tracking (MOT) involves simultaneous tracking of a certain number of target objects amongst a larger set of objects as they all move unpredictably over time. The prevalent explanation for successful target tracking by humans in MOT involving visually identical objects is based on the Visual Indexing Theory. This assumes that each target is indexed by a pointer using a non-conceptual mechanism to maintain an object's identity even as its properties change over time. Thus, successful tracking requires successful indexing and the absence of identification errors. Identity maintenance and successful tracking are measured in terms of identification (ID) and tracking accuracy respectively, with higher accuracy indicating better identity maintenance or better tracking. Existing evidence suggests that humans have high tracking accuracy despite poor identification accuracy, suggesting that it might be possible to perform MOT without indexing. Our work adds to existing evidence for this position through two experiments, and presents a computational model of multiple object tracking that does not require indexes. Our empirical results show that identification accuracy is aligned with tracking accuracy in humans for tracking up to three, but is lower when tracking more objects. Our computational model of MOT without indexing accounts for several empirical tracking accuracy patterns shown in earlier studies, reproduces the dissociation between tracking and identification accuracy produced earlier in the literature as well as in our experiments, and makes several novel predictions.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"278-308"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990572/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140871002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Response to Difficulty Drives Variation in IQ Test Performance.","authors":"Samuel J Cheyette, Steven T Piantadosi","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00127","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00127","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In a large (<i>N</i> = 300), pre-registered experiment and data analysis model, we find that individual variation in overall performance on Raven's Progressive Matrices is substantially driven by differential strategizing in the face of difficulty. Some participants choose to spend more time on hard problems while others choose to spend less and these differences explain about 42% of the variance in overall performance. In a data analysis jointly predicting participants' reaction times and accuracy on each item, we find that the Raven's task captures at most half of participants' variation in time-controlled ability (48%) down to almost none (3%), depending on which notion of ability is assumed. Our results highlight the role that confounding factors such as motivation play in explaining individuals' differential performance in IQ testing.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"265-277"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990577/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140858301","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"It's All in the Interaction: Early Acquired Words Are Both Frequent and Highly Imageable.","authors":"Joseph R Coffey, Margarita Zeitlin, Jean Crawford, Jesse Snedeker","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00130","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00130","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Prior studies have found that children are more likely to learn words that are frequent in the input and highly imageable. Many theories of word learning, however, predict that these variables should interact, particularly early in development: frequency of a form is of little use if you cannot infer its meaning, and a concrete word cannot be acquired if you never hear it. The present study explores this interaction, how it changes over time and its relationship to syntactic category effects in children acquiring American English. We analyzed 1461 monolingual English-speaking children aged 1;4-2;6 from the MB-CDI norming study (Fenson et al., 1994). Word frequency was estimated from the CHILDES database, and imageability was measured using adult ratings. There was a strong over-additive interaction between frequency and imageability, such that children were more likely to learn a word if it was both highly imageable and very frequent. This interaction was larger in younger children than in older children. There were reliable differences between syntactic categories independent of frequency and imageability, which did not interact with age. These findings are consistent with theories in which children's early words are acquired by mapping frequent word forms onto concrete, perceptually available referents, such that highly frequent items are only acquired if they are also imageable, and vice versa.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"309-332"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990573/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140868360","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"What Does <i>That</i> Mean? Complementizers and Epistemic Authority.","authors":"Rebecca Tollan, Bilge Palaz","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00135","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00135","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A core goal of research in language is to understand the factors that guide choice of linguistic form where more than one option is syntactically well-formed. We discuss one case of optionality that has generated longstanding discussion: the choice of either using or dropping the English complementizer <i>that</i> in sentences like <i>I think (that) the cat followed the dog</i>. Existing psycholinguistic analyses tie <i>that</i>-usage to production pressures associated with sentence planning (Ferreira & Dell, 2000), avoidance of ambiguity (Hawkins, 2004), and relative information density (Jaeger, 2010). Building on observations from cross-linguistic fieldwork, we present a novel proposal in which English <i>that</i> can serve to mark a speaker's \"epistemic authority\" over the information packaged within the embedded clause; that is, it indicates that the speaker has more knowledge of the embedded proposition compared with their addressee and thus has a perspective that they believe their addressee doesn't share. Testing this proposal with a forced-choice task and a series of corpus surveys, we find that English <i>that</i> is keyed to the use of embedded speaker (first-person) subject pronouns and occurs in sentences containing newsworthy information. Our account of <i>that</i>-optionality takes into account why <i>that</i> is associated with both (i) a dense information signal and (ii) semantic-pragmatic content, as well as extending to cases of non-optionality in subject/sentence-initial clauses (e.g., *<i>(That) the cat is following the dog, I already know</i>) and fragment answers (e.g., <i>What do you already know?</i> *<i>(That) the cat is following the dog</i>), where <i>that</i> is required.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"366-394"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990574/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140863179","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Infants Infer Social Relationships Between Individuals Who Engage in Imitative Social Interactions.","authors":"Vanessa Kudrnova, Elizabeth S Spelke, Ashley J Thomas","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00124","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00124","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Infants are born into rich social networks and are faced with the challenge of learning about them. When infants observe social interactions, they make predictions about future behavior, but it is not clear whether these predictions are based on social dispositions, social relationships, or both. The current studies (N = 188, N = 90 males) address this question in 12-month-old infants and 16- to 18-month-old toddlers who observe social interactions involving imitation. In Studies 1 and 3, infants and toddlers expected that imitators, compared to non-imitators, would respond to their social partners' distress. Likewise, they expected the targets of imitation, compared to non-targets, to respond to their partner's distress. In Study 2, these expectations did not generalize to interactions with a new partner, providing evidence that infants learned about the relationships between individuals as opposed to their dispositions. In Study 3, infants did not make predictions about responses to laughter, suggesting that infants see imitation as indicative of a specific kind of social relationship. Together, these results provide evidence that imitative interactions support infants' and toddlers' learning about the social relationships connecting unknown individuals.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"202-216"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10932586/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140112614","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Word Frequency and Predictability Dissociate in Naturalistic Reading.","authors":"Cory Shain","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00119","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00119","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Many studies of human language processing have shown that readers slow down at less frequent or less predictable words, but there is debate about whether frequency and predictability effects reflect separable cognitive phenomena: are cognitive operations that retrieve words from the mental lexicon based on sensory cues distinct from those that predict upcoming words based on context? Previous evidence for a frequency-predictability dissociation is mostly based on small samples (both for estimating predictability and frequency and for testing their effects on human behavior), artificial materials (e.g., isolated constructed sentences), and implausible modeling assumptions (discrete-time dynamics, linearity, additivity, constant variance, and invariance over time), which raises the question: do frequency and predictability dissociate in ordinary language comprehension, such as story reading? This study leverages recent progress in open data and computational modeling to address this question at scale. A large collection of naturalistic reading data (six datasets, >2.2 M datapoints) is analyzed using nonlinear continuous-time regression, and frequency and predictability are estimated using statistical language models trained on more data than is currently typical in psycholinguistics. Despite the use of naturalistic data, strong predictability estimates, and flexible regression models, results converge with earlier experimental studies in supporting dissociable and additive frequency and predictability effects.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"177-201"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10932590/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140111558","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}