Open Mind最新文献

{"title":"Neural Networks as Cognitive Models of the Processing of Syntactic Constraints.","authors":"Suhas Arehalli, Tal Linzen","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00137","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00137","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Languages are governed by <i>syntactic constraints</i>-structural rules that determine which sentences are grammatical in the language. In English, one such constraint is <i>subject-verb agreement</i>, which dictates that the number of a verb must match the number of its corresponding subject: \"the dog<i>s</i> run\", but \"the dog run<i>s</i>\". While this constraint appears to be simple, in practice speakers make agreement errors, particularly when a noun phrase near the verb differs in number from the subject (for example, a speaker might produce the ungrammatical sentence \"the key to the cabinets are rusty\"). This phenomenon, referred to as <i>agreement attraction</i>, is sensitive to a wide range of properties of the sentence; no single existing model is able to generate predictions for the wide variety of materials studied in the human experimental literature. We explore the viability of neural network language models-broad-coverage systems trained to predict the next word in a corpus-as a framework for addressing this limitation. We analyze the agreement errors made by Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks and compare them to those of humans. The models successfully simulate certain results, such as the so-called number asymmetry and the difference between attraction strength in grammatical and ungrammatical sentences, but failed to simulate others, such as the effect of syntactic distance or notional (conceptual) number. We further evaluate networks trained with explicit syntactic supervision, and find that this form of supervision does not always lead to more human-like syntactic behavior. Finally, we show that the corpus used to train a network significantly affects the pattern of agreement errors produced by the network, and discuss the strengths and limitations of neural networks as a tool for understanding human syntactic processing.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"558-614"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11093404/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140921183","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Examining the Impact of Reading Fluency on Lexical Decision Results in French 6th Graders.","authors":"Marie Lubineau, Cassandra Potier Watkins, Hervé Glasel, Stanislas Dehaene","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00140","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00140","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Purpose: </strong>How does lexical decision behavior vary in students with the same grade level (all students were in their first year of middle-school), but different levels of reading fluency? Here, we tested a prediction of the dual-route model: as fluency increases, variations in the results may reflect a decreasing reliance on decoding and an increasing reliance on the lexical route.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>1,501 French 6^th graders passed a one-minute speeded reading-aloud task evaluating fluency, and a ten-minute computerized lexical decision task evaluating the impact of lexicality, length, word frequency and pseudoword type.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>As predicted, the word length effect varied dramatically with reading fluency, with the least fluent students showing a length effect even for frequent words. The frequency effect also varied, but solely in proportion to overall reading speed, suggesting that frequency affects the decision stage similarly in all readers, while length disproportionately impacts poor readers. Response times and errors were also affected by pseudoword type (e.g., letter substitutions or transpositions), but these effects showed minimal variation with fluency. Overall, lexical decision variables were excellent predictors of reading fluency (r = 0.62).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Our results highlight the variability in middle-school reading ability and describe how a simple lexical decision task can be used to assess students' mental lexicon (vocabulary) and the automatization of reading skills.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"535-557"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11093403/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140920953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Does Distance Matter? How Physical and Social Distance Shape Our Perceived Obligations to Others.","authors":"Julia Marshall, Matti Wilks","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00138","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00138","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Debates within moral philosophy have long centered on the question of whether we are more obligated to help those close to us compared to those who are farther away. Despite these debates, we have little understanding of our psychological intuitions about these issues. In the current study, we presented adults and children (5- to 9-year-olds) in the United States (<i>N</i> = 406) with hypothetical scenarios involving pairs of socially and physically close and far strangers and asked about their obligations to help one another. In general, younger children (∼6-year-olds) were more inclined to describe strangers as obligated to help one another compared to older children (∼8-year-olds) and adults. For physical distance, we documented an age-related trend where younger children were less inclined to consider physical distance when ascribing obligations to help compared to older children and adults. For social distance, we found different results depending on how social distance was manipulated. In Study 1, where social distance was manipulated via mere similarity, we found an age-related effect where adults, but not younger or older children, judged that individuals are more obligated to help socially close others relative to far ones. In Study 2, where social distance was manipulated via explicit group membership, we did not find an age trend. Instead, participants generally described individuals as more obligated to help an ingroup member relative to an outgroup one. These results demonstrate that the tendency to deny obligations towards distant others is a belief that emerges relatively late in development.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"511-534"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11093409/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140920632","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toddlers Prefer Agents Who Help Those Facing Harder Tasks.","authors":"Brandon M Woo, Shari Liu, Hyowon Gweon, Elizabeth S Spelke","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00129","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00129","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Capacities to understand and evaluate others' actions are fundamental to human social life. Infants and toddlers are sensitive to the costs of others' actions, infer others' values from the costs of the actions they take, and prefer those who help others to those who hinder them, but it is largely unknown whether and how cost considerations inform early understanding of third-party prosocial actions. In three experiments (<i>N</i> = 94), we asked whether 16-month-old toddlers value agents who selectively help those who need it most. Presented with two agents who attempted two tasks, toddlers preferentially looked to and touched someone who helped the agent in greater need, both when one agent's task required more effort and when the tasks were the same but one agent was weaker. These results provide evidence that toddlers engage in need-based evaluations of helping, applying their understanding of action utilities to their social evaluations.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"483-499"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045033/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140864930","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Role of Uniform Textures in Making Texture Elements Visible in the Visual Periphery.","authors":"Marco Bertamini, Carolina Maria Oletto, Giulio Contemori","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00136","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00136","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>There are important differences between central and peripheral vision. With respect to shape, contours retain phenomenal sharpness, although some contours disappear if they are near other contours. This leads to some uniform textures to appear non-uniform (Honeycomb illusion, Bertamini et al., 2016). Unlike other phenomena of shape perception in the periphery, this illusion is showing how continuity of the texture does not contribute to phenomenal continuity. We systematically varied the relationship between central and peripheral regions, and we collected subjective reports (how far can one see lines) as well as judgments of line orientation. We used extended textures created with a square grid and some additional lines that are invisible when they are located at the corners of the grid, or visible when they are separated from the grid (control condition). With respects to subjective reports, we compared the region of visibility for cases in which the texture was uniform (Exp 1a), or when in a central region the lines were different (Exp 1b). There were no differences, showing no role of objective uniformity on visibility. Next, in addition to the region of visibility we measured sensitivity using a forced-choice task (line tilted left or right) (Exp 2). The drop in sensitivity with eccentricity matched the size of the region in which lines were perceived in the illusion condition, but not in the control condition. When participants were offered a choice to report of the lines were present or absent (Exp 3) they confirmed that they did not see them in the illusion condition, but saw them in the control condition. We conclude that mechanisms that control perception of contours operate differently in the periphery, and override prior expectations, including that of uniformity. Conversely, when elements are detected in the periphery, we assign to them properties based on information from central vision, but these shapes cannot be identified correctly when the task requires such discrimination.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"462-482"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045036/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140868266","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bayesian Reinforcement Learning With Limited Cognitive Load.","authors":"Dilip Arumugam, Mark K Ho, Noah D Goodman, Benjamin Van Roy","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00132","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00132","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>All biological and artificial agents must act given limits on their ability to acquire and process information. As such, a general theory of adaptive behavior should be able to account for the complex interactions between an agent's learning history, decisions, and capacity constraints. Recent work in computer science has begun to clarify the principles that shape these dynamics by bridging ideas from <i>reinforcement learning</i>, <i>Bayesian decision-making</i>, and <i>rate-distortion theory</i>. This body of work provides an account of <i>capacity-limited Bayesian reinforcement learning</i>, a unifying normative framework for modeling the effect of processing constraints on learning and action selection. Here, we provide an accessible review of recent algorithms and theoretical results in this setting, paying special attention to how these ideas can be applied to studying questions in the cognitive and behavioral sciences.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"395-438"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045037/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140872440","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evidence for Infant-directed Speech Preference Is Consistent Across Large-scale, Multi-site Replication and Meta-analysis.","authors":"Martin Zettersten, Christopher Cox, Christina Bergmann, Angeline Sin Mei Tsui, Melanie Soderstrom, Julien Mayor, Rebecca A Lundwall, Molly Lewis, Jessica E Kosie, Natalia Kartushina, Riccardo Fusaroli, Michael C Frank, Krista Byers-Heinlein, Alexis K Black, Maya B Mathur","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00134","DOIUrl":"10.1162/opmi_a_00134","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>There is substantial evidence that infants prefer infant-directed speech (IDS) to adult-directed speech (ADS). The strongest evidence for this claim has come from two large-scale investigations: i) a community-augmented meta-analysis of published behavioral studies and ii) a large-scale multi-lab replication study. In this paper, we aim to improve our understanding of the IDS preference and its boundary conditions by combining and comparing these two data sources across key population and design characteristics of the underlying studies. Our analyses reveal that both the meta-analysis and multi-lab replication show moderate effect sizes (<i>d</i> ≈ 0.35 for each estimate) and that both of these effects persist when relevant study-level moderators are added to the models (i.e., experimental methods, infant ages, and native languages). However, while the overall effect size estimates were similar, the two sources diverged in the effects of key moderators: both infant age and experimental method predicted IDS preference in the multi-lab replication study, but showed no effect in the meta-analysis. These results demonstrate that the IDS preference generalizes across a variety of experimental conditions and sampling characteristics, while simultaneously identifying key differences in the empirical picture offered by each source individually and pinpointing areas where substantial uncertainty remains about the influence of theoretically central moderators on IDS preference. Overall, our results show how meta-analyses and multi-lab replications can be used in tandem to understand the robustness and generalizability of developmental phenomena.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"439-461"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11045035/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140866615","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"On the Role of Loopholes in Polite Communication: Linking Subjectivity and Pragmatic Inference","authors":"Nicole Gotzner, Gregory Scontras","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00133","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00133","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract Existing proposals on the attenuating uses of indirect, negated expressions (e.g., not happy to mean sad) agree that speakers exploit indirectness for pragmatic purposes but differ on the underlying sources they attribute to these uses. Here, we synthesize existing proposals via adjective subjectivity, which operationalizes the notion of loopholes for plausible deniability. We present experimental evidence that the degree of subjectivity of an adjective predicts the degree to which participants strengthen the negated adjective’s meaning, but only if the adjective under consideration has an evaluatively-positive meaning. This finding indicates that speakers may intentionally use negation to leave themselves the option to retract the implicated face-threatening meaning if openly challenged.","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"94 6","pages":"500-510"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140777017","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Preliminary Evidence for Global Properties in Human Listeners During Natural Auditory Scene Perception.","authors":"Margaret A McMullin, Rohit Kumar, Nathan C Higgins, Brian Gygi, Mounya Elhilali, Joel S Snyder","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00131","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00131","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Theories of auditory and visual scene analysis suggest the perception of scenes relies on the identification and segregation of objects within it, resembling a detail-oriented processing style. However, a more global process may occur while analyzing scenes, which has been evidenced in the visual domain. It is our understanding that a similar line of research has not been explored in the auditory domain; therefore, we evaluated the contributions of high-level global and low-level acoustic information to auditory scene perception. An additional aim was to increase the field's ecological validity by using and making available a new collection of high-quality auditory scenes. Participants rated scenes on 8 global properties (e.g., open vs. enclosed) and an acoustic analysis evaluated which low-level features predicted the ratings. We submitted the acoustic measures and average ratings of the global properties to separate exploratory factor analyses (EFAs). The EFA of the acoustic measures revealed a seven-factor structure explaining 57% of the variance in the data, while the EFA of the global property measures revealed a two-factor structure explaining 64% of the variance in the data. Regression analyses revealed each global property was predicted by at least one acoustic variable (R² = 0.33-0.87). These findings were extended using deep neural network models where we examined correlations between human ratings of global properties and deep embeddings of two computational models: an object-based model and a scene-based model. The results support that participants' ratings are more strongly explained by a global analysis of the scene setting, though the relationship between scene perception and auditory perception is multifaceted, with differing correlation patterns evident between the two models. Taken together, our results provide evidence for the ability to perceive auditory scenes from a global perspective. Some of the acoustic measures predicted ratings of global scene perception, suggesting representations of auditory objects may be transformed through many stages of processing in the ventral auditory stream, similar to what has been proposed in the ventral visual stream. These findings and the open availability of our scene collection will make future studies on perception, attention, and memory for natural auditory scenes possible.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"333-365"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990578/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140872348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multiple Object Tracking Without Pre-attentive Indexing.","authors":"Shubhamkar Ayare, Nisheeth Srivastava","doi":"10.1162/opmi_a_00128","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1162/opmi_a_00128","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Multiple object tracking (MOT) involves simultaneous tracking of a certain number of target objects amongst a larger set of objects as they all move unpredictably over time. The prevalent explanation for successful target tracking by humans in MOT involving visually identical objects is based on the Visual Indexing Theory. This assumes that each target is indexed by a pointer using a non-conceptual mechanism to maintain an object's identity even as its properties change over time. Thus, successful tracking requires successful indexing and the absence of identification errors. Identity maintenance and successful tracking are measured in terms of identification (ID) and tracking accuracy respectively, with higher accuracy indicating better identity maintenance or better tracking. Existing evidence suggests that humans have high tracking accuracy despite poor identification accuracy, suggesting that it might be possible to perform MOT without indexing. Our work adds to existing evidence for this position through two experiments, and presents a computational model of multiple object tracking that does not require indexes. Our empirical results show that identification accuracy is aligned with tracking accuracy in humans for tracking up to three, but is lower when tracking more objects. Our computational model of MOT without indexing accounts for several empirical tracking accuracy patterns shown in earlier studies, reproduces the dissociation between tracking and identification accuracy produced earlier in the literature as well as in our experiments, and makes several novel predictions.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"8 ","pages":"278-308"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10990572/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140871002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}