{"title":"Labor I","authors":"Jenny March","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.3","url":null,"abstract":"The first of the Twelve Labors that Heracles performed for Eurystheus was to slay the Nemean Lion, an enormous beast who was living in the foothills of Nemea in the northwestern corner of the Argolid, terrorizing the neighborhood and preying on men and animals alike. The Lion’s skin was invulnerable to weapons, so the only way that Heracles could achieve his task was to choke the beast to death with his bare hands. The eleven Labors that followed would have Heracles demonstrating many heroic qualities—prodigious courage, prowess, endurance, even cunning; but none required from him quite such sheer brute strength. So great was his achievement that Zeus set the Lion in the stars as the constellation Leo, to be an everlasting memorial of his favorite son’s first great task. Heracles ever afterward wore the lion-skin as a trophy, with its forepaws knotted around his neck and its scalp serving as a helmet, the invulnerable hide itself protecting him from all weapons. This was not only the most popular of Heracles’ exploits to be depicted in ancient art, with many hundreds of representations surviving in vase-paintings alone, but also the commonest of all mythological scenes in antiquity.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"50 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115725477","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Classical Art","authors":"Amy L. Smith","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.24","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.24","url":null,"abstract":"As Panhellenic and local hero, semidivinity or god, Heracles received reverence across Greece and served as patron divinity in many locales. The frequency and survival of his images from across the Greek and Roman worlds unsurprisingly surpasses that of all other mythic figures. After all, he appealed to all genders and strata of society, ranging from slaves to rulers, for example, Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens; the kings of Pontus; and Caracalla. While Heracles’ role in Classical art (archaic Greece through the Roman Empire) is therefore immense, this chapter surveys his appearances in three diverse spheres of activity, namely sport, politics, and the private realm, including music and sexuality.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"26 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123633190","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor III","authors":"Emma Aston","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.5","url":null,"abstract":"The Cerynean Hind serves to cast Heracles as a problematic hero. It is delicate and beautiful, and defeating it constitutes no great act of force or valor (though it does require fleetness of foot). Moreover, it is sacred to Artemis, and its capture therefore constitutes a serious religious transgression. This chapter examines the exploitation of this problematic quality in literature (such as Pindar) and art, and also discusses the localizations of the story, both in Hyperborea—the northern margin of Heracles’ travels—and the heartland of the Peloponnese. However, unlike the Stymphalian Birds, the Hind has no real place in the myth-historical identity of any Greek community.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117225771","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The Gigantomachy","authors":"Christina A. Salowey","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.16","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.16","url":null,"abstract":"Heracles was enlisted as the token mortal, necessary for victory, in the Olympian gods’ battle against the Giants. This chapter concentrates on the surviving ancient portrayals of Heracles’ participation in the battle, in which he fights paired with Zeus, his father, or Athena, his mentor, and employing his iconic bow, although some compositions require that he wield his characteristic club as well. It is asked what actions he performed and why he deserved immortality for the task. The manner in which hero’s actions were valorized in particular pieces of literature or art is also explored. The myth seems to be used as political allegory, the gigantic enemies referencing Persians, Galatians, or political adversaries to fit the times.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128985828","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor VI","authors":"Emma Aston","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.7","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter surveys the literary and visual treatments of Heracles’ encounter with the Stymphalian Birds. While some ancient accounts make the birds dangerous adversaries, in most they are merely pests that infest Stymphalus, hampering agriculture; this Labor is therefore less about the vanquishing of a mighty animal foe and more about the clearing of land for cultivation. It is argued that the Labor is part of a complex of local Arcadian myth in which the forces of nature have to be subdued and controlled so that human society can prosper. The birds themselves are an important part of the self-representation of the polis of Stymphalus, through cult and coinage.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"24 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126101821","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor VII","authors":"D. Ogden","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.41","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.41","url":null,"abstract":"The tradition of Heracles’ Cretan Bull Labor is reviewed, with attention to literary and iconographic sources, and the richest of the former supplied in quotation. After capturing the marauding fiery bull, Heracles rides it across the ocean back to Argos. As a fire-breather, the bull is aligned with others of Heracles’ Labor-animals, the Mares of Diomede and the Hydra, and also with the creatures faced by other quest-heroes, the fiery bulls of Colchis encountered by Jason, and the Lycian Chimaera encountered by Bellerophon. The tradition’s principal means of elaborating this Labor came via the bull’s identification with other great mythological bulls, namely those of Europa and Pasiphae, both variously associated with Crete, and also with the Marathonian bull captured by Theseus.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"76 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115220579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Birth and Childhood","authors":"C. Pache","doi":"10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190650988.013.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190650988.013.1","url":null,"abstract":"The stories about the birth and childhood of Heracles tell of a hero who has the potential to be a protector and savior for gods and men, but also the most uncivilized of beings. His supernatural strength is both a boon and a disaster in waiting: it allows him to face wild animals and other threats, but, coupled with his lack of self-control, it is also what makes him dangerous to mankind. Already as a child, Heracles is the hero who “contains his own antithesis”; the greatest of the Greek heroes—the only one who transcends his half-mortal status to become a god—is also the most savage and threatening to human institutions.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122440063","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor XI","authors":"G. Salapata","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.10","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.10","url":null,"abstract":"The Apples of the Hesperides is the most complex and fascinating Labor of Heracles. Because it is well attested in both literary and visual sources, we can follow its evolution and transformations through the centuries from a narrative to a more symbolic representation of the myth. Heracles had to fetch the golden apples from the divine garden of the Hesperides, situated beyond the limits of the known world and assimilated in popular belief with Elysion and the Isles of the Blessed. There are two main versions of how Heracles managed to obtain the apples, equally well attested in literature and art, and apparently running parallel to each other: he either picked them himself after slaying the guarding serpent; or he was helped by the sky-bearing Titan Atlas, who fetched them for him while Heracles relieved him from the burden of heavens. In other variants, known through the iconographic tradition, Heracles either deceives or is helped by the Hesperides. Even though no sources specify that the golden apples conferred immortality or youth, their divine associations and location in the paradise-like garden of the gods relate to Heracles’ attainment of immortality and the pleasures of a blessed afterlife.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122595840","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor IX","authors":"A. Mayor","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.8","url":null,"abstract":"Heracles’ ninth Labor, set by King Eurystheus and Princess Admete of Tiryns, was to obtain the war belt of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons dwelling in Pontus on the Black Sea. Artistic and literary evidence suggests that his mission began peacefully but turned violent thanks to Heracles’ nemesis, the goddess Hera. The encounter between Heracles and his companions against the Amazons was one of the most popular subjects in ancient Greek vase painting and sculpture, second only to the Nemean Lion, with the earliest depiction on a terracotta shield of about 700 BC, found at Tiryns. The artistic and literary depictions reveal that Hippolyte and the Amazons were considered the equals of Greek males in courage and combat skills, although they were ultimately defeated and the Amazon queen’s precious war belt was won by Heracles.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130513471","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Labor II","authors":"Christina A. Salowey","doi":"10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.4","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190650988.013.4","url":null,"abstract":"Heracles’ second Labor consisted of conquering a serpentine monster living in the marshlands near Lerna in the Argolid. The usually nine-headed Lernean Hydra had multiple appendages ending in snake heads, which, when cut or destroyed, regenerated themselves and multiplied. Heracles was assisted by Iolaus on this venture because Hera also sent a crab to attack and distract the hero from the task. This chapter explores the notable textual and visual representations of the myth, together with the topography and hydrology of Lerna, and suggests that the Hydra is emblematic of wilder environmental dangers against which Heracles is very often a champion.","PeriodicalId":314797,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Handbook of Heracles","volume":"118 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116631305","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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