Water Resources Research最新文献

{"title":"Searching for Functional Simplicity of Stormflow Generation","authors":"Hamed Sharif, Ali A. Ameli","doi":"10.1029/2024wr037179","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr037179","url":null,"abstract":"Our study proposes a data-driven framework that identifies the level of functional simplicity of catchment's stormflow generation during dormant/growing seasons, using daily scale observations of streamflow and precipitation. We classify 619 rain-dominated catchments across Canada, the United States, Great Britain, and Australia into three behavioral classes—simple, intermediate, and complex—based on the validity of (segmented) linear models in explaining the inter-event relationship between precipitation volume and stormflow volume. Results reveal that simple stormflow generation behavior occurs at 108 catchments during dormant seasons with the linear model explaining most variability of inter-event relationship between precipitation and stormflow volumes (median R² of 0.81). These simple catchments are typically steep with wet/out-of-phase climate and strong precipitation persistence. The functional simplicity of simple catchments is further explored using spectral (coherency) analysis, which indicates the level of synchronicity between daily scale precipitation and streamflow time-series. Simple catchments exhibit a strong coherency value at high frequencies, resembling the dynamic of a nearly Linear Time-Invariant system. Indeed, the portion of precipitation volume that becomes stormflow tends to remain constant during dormant seasons, since the transfer function translating precipitation pulses to the streamflow hydrograph is nearly linear and time-invariant. Complex catchments, in contrast, exhibit nonlinear relationships and time-variant transfer functions, with weak coherency between precipitation and streamflow time-series. Our results guide modeling frameworks to adjust the simplicity/complexity level with the catchment's “observation-based” functional behavior. By synthesizing the causes/drivers and empirical equations relevant to simple stormflow behavior, our study contributes to the development of a unified hydrologic theory of stormflow generation.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"183 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666581","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Joint Assessment of the Behavior of Nitrate and Saltwater Intrusion Within Negative Hydraulic Barrier Setups","authors":"Shaobo Gao, Tianyuan Zheng, Jian Luo, Xilai Zheng, Yunhai Fang, Marc Walther","doi":"10.1029/2024wr039047","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr039047","url":null,"abstract":"Nitrate is a common groundwater contaminant resulting from excessive agricultural fertilizer use, especially in coastal regions. Negative hydraulic barriers (NHBs) are widely used to mitigate seawater intrusion by altering groundwater behavior and pumping saline groundwater, but their impact on nitrate pollution remains unclear. This study investigated the mechanisms and impacts of NHBs on nitrate contamination using a 3D variable-density model coupled with multi-species transport simulations. We found that NHBs intensified nitrate accumulation near pollution sources, leading to the formation of high-concentration zones. Nitrate removal was mainly through submarine groundwater discharge (SGD, accounting for 62.77%) before NHBs were introduced, but SGD efficiency dropped significantly (to 29.03%) after NHBs installation, with NHBs contributing 21.17%. Increasing NHBs pumping rates enhanced salt mass reduction and shifted nitrate removal toward NHBs-based processes. Additionally, LH-type aquifers, characterized by a low hydraulic conductivity (<b>K</b>) layer at the top, exacerbated nitrate retention and denitrification, while HL-type aquifers, with a low <b>K</b> layer at the bottom, promoted horizontal diffusion and improved SGD. Furthermore, NHBs consistently intensified nitrate removal across different seawater boundary conditions. Our investigation highlights the importance of incorporating the effects of NHBs in the assessment of coastal nitrate pollution to avoid negative consequences associated with the barriers.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"199 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666464","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sensor Cooperation Gain System for Burst Monitoring in Water Distribution Network: Concept, Design, and Evaluation","authors":"Shipeng Chu, Shuangshuang Cai, Ruofei Liu, Tuqiao Zhang, Yu Shao, Jia Liu","doi":"10.1029/2024wr039189","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr039189","url":null,"abstract":"Pipe bursts in water distribution networks (WDNs) not only cause significant water wastage but also pose risks of secondary disasters, such as road collapses. In most cases, these failures often result in a simultaneous decrease in values across multiple pressure sensors, indicating strong correlations in pressure data from the same event. This correlation suggests that leveraging the cooperative interaction between multiple sensors can significantly enhance burst detection sensitivity and expand coverage—an advantage largely overlooked in current methods. To address this gap, this study introduces a sensor cooperation gain system that constructs virtual sensors based on pressure data correlations and applies value fusion principles to form a multi-sensor, cooperation-based burst detection model, thus enabling more accurate system-wide decision-making. Case studies demonstrate that, compared to the existing method, the proposed gain fusion approach improves monitoring coverage by 25.34% and reduces the minimum coverage burst flow rate by 29.69 m³/hr.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"22 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666580","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Incorporating Risk in Operational Water Resources Management: Probabilistic Forecasting, Scenario Generation, and Optimal Control","authors":"Ties van der Heijden, Miguel Angel Mendoza-Lugo, Peter Palensky, Nick van de Giesen, Edo Abraham","doi":"10.1029/2024wr037115","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr037115","url":null,"abstract":"This study presents an innovative approach to risk-aware decision-making in water resource management. We focus on a case study in the Netherlands, where risk awareness is key to water system design and policy-making. Recognizing the limitations of deterministic methods in the face of weather, energy system, and market uncertainties, we propose a scalable stochastic Model Predictive Control (MPC) framework that integrates probabilistic forecasting, scenario generation, and stochastic optimal control. We utilize Combined Quantile Regression Deep Neural Networks and Non-parametric Bayesian Networks to generate probabilistic scenarios that capture realistic temporal dependencies. The energy distance metric is applied to optimize scenario selection and generate scenario trees, ensuring computational feasibility without compromising decision quality. A key feature of our approach is the introduction of Exceedance Risk (ER) constraints, inspired by Conditional-Value-at-Risk (CVaR), to enable more nuanced and risk-aware decision-making while maintaining computational efficiency. In this work, we enable the Noordzeekanaal–Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal (NZK-ARK) system to participate in Demand Response (DR) services by dynamically scheduling pumps to align with low hourly electricity prices on the Day Ahead and Intraday markets. Through historical simulations using real water system and electricity price data, we demonstrate that incorporating uncertainty can significantly reduce operational costs—by up to 44 percentage points compared to a deterministic approach—while maintaining safe water levels. The modular nature of the framework also makes it adaptable to a wide range of applications, including hydropower and battery storage systems.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"70 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666576","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cycles in Hydrologic Intensification and De-Intensification Create Instabilities in Spring Nitrate-N Export C-Q Relationships in Northern Temperate Forests","authors":"I. F. Creed, D. A. Aldred, J. A. Leach, K. L. Webster, M. Bieroza","doi":"10.1029/2024wr038560","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr038560","url":null,"abstract":"Northern temperate forests are experiencing changes from climate and acidification recovery that influence catchment nitrate-nitrogen (N) flushing behavior. N flushing behavior is characterized by metrics such as: (a) N flushing time—the exponential decrease in stream N concentration during the peak snowmelt episode; and (b) N concentration (C) and discharge (Q) hysteresis metrics—flushing index (FI) and hysteresis index (HI)—representing the slope, direction, and amplitude of the C-Q loop. We hypothesized that climate-driven hydrologic intensification results in longer N flushing times, lower FI (less flushing to more diluting), and lower HI (less proximal to more distal N sources). We tested this hypothesis using four decades of data from two headwater catchments. Hydrologic intensification was estimated by changes in the ratio of potential evapotranspiration to precipitation and the ratio of actual evapotranspiration to precipitation. From 1982 to 2005, a period characterized by hydrologic intensification and a decline in atmospheric acidic deposition, we observed a decrease in C and Q. This led to stable C-Q patterns that reflected the flushing (positive FI) of proximal N sources (positive HI). However, from 2006 to 2019, a period of hydrologic de-intensification coupled with an ongoing decline in atmospheric acidic deposition was associated with a continued decrease in C but an increase in Q, leading to unstable C-Q patterns that reflected a shift from proximal (positive HI) toward distal N sources (negative HI). C-Q instability was less variable in the catchment with a large wetland, indicating the potential of wetlands to buffer against changing climate conditions.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"125 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666574","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Water Transit Time Explains the Concentration, Quality and Reactivity of Dissolved Organic Carbon in an Alpine Stream","authors":"G. Grandi, N. Catalán, S. Bernal, C. Fasching, T. I. Battin, E. Bertuzzo","doi":"10.1029/2024wr039392","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr039392","url":null,"abstract":"The amount and quality of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) exported from terrestrial to riverine ecosystems are critical factors influencing aquatic metabolism and ecosystem health in streams, rivers, and lakes. This study investigates the interplay between hydrologic conditions and DOC dynamics in an alpine catchment, focusing on how DOC concentration and quality shift during baseflow, snowmelt, and storm events. Such dynamics were explored in the Oberer Seebach basin (Austria) where sub-daily DOC concentration data, along with high resolution excitation-emission matrices and absorbance spectra, were used to characterize DOC concentration and quality. We quantitatively linked hydrologic pathways with DOC dynamics by advancing a framework that couples water age, which tracks the time water spends within the catchment, with the Reactivity Continuum model, which quantifies the evolution of DOC reactivity and ensuing concentration. Results show that simulating both water age and DOC reactivity effectively reproduces DOC concentrations and reveals a correlation between modeled reactivity and observed DOC quality indices. During snowmelt and storm events, rapid hydrologic pathways transport reactive DOC with a quality profile similar to that of freshly formed terrestrial DOC, while during baseflow, slower pathways carry less reactive DOC with a signature of preceding degradation processes. These findings shed light on the role of catchment hydrology in carbon cycling and on its implications for riverine ecosystem functioning.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"56 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666577","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reachability of a Soil Phosphorus Target That Satisfies Agricultural Production and Water Quality Goals","authors":"Kevin Wallington, Ximing Cai, Dušan Stipanović","doi":"10.1029/2024wr037714","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr037714","url":null,"abstract":"Phosphorus fertilization has supported remarkable improvements in agricultural productivity but also degraded water quality. Watershed simulation models have been broadly instrumental to crafting phosphorus management responses. However, simulation-based studies rely on predesigned watershed scenarios (e.g., initial conditions and management actions) and are blind to outcomes that might only emerge from unseen scenarios. Meanwhile, efforts to restore water quality have routinely failed. In contrast to simulation-based methods, here we implement optimal control and reachability methods that describe watershed phosphorus trajectories for <i>any</i> initial condition and fertilizer strategy. The trade-off is that these new methods require simplification of the system's dynamics. For a two-pool phosphorus model, we define a dual management target where (a) plant-available phosphorus satisfies crop demand but (b) total phosphorus losses meet water quality goals. From this target, we compute backwards-reachable sets that indicate the minimum time in which the target can be reached from all initial conditions. For a typical watershed in the U.S. corn belt, we find that it will take at least 42 years to reach the joint agricultural and water quality target. We show that the optimal (time-minimizing) fertilizer rate strategy drives a roundabout trajectory toward the target where soil phosphorus violates the crop demand threshold during the interim time. However, we find that even small, short-term agricultural sacrifices can profoundly hasten progress toward the long-term, joint target of agricultural productivity and water quality. These results and methods complement traditional simulation-based studies and provide watershed managers with a richer characterization of uncertainty and management options.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"93 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Transport of Fe-Based Nanoparticles in Porous Media Facilitated by Xanthan Gum: Non-Monotonic Relation Between Transport Efficiency and Flow Velocity","authors":"Guansheng Liu, Lili Huo, Yongming Wu, Zhibing Yang, Jiacheng Xia, Hua Zhong","doi":"10.1029/2024wr039225","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr039225","url":null,"abstract":"The transport of Fe-based nanoparticles (Fe-NPs) in porous media is of vital importance for application of Fe-NPs in groundwater remediation, yet their low mobility remains an open question. Here, we conducted column and microfluidic transport experiments combined with rheology experiments and model simulations to investigate the effect of xanthan gum (XG) on the transport of two types of Fe-NPs (nanoparticles of Fe₃O₄ (<i>n</i>Fe₃O₄) and zero-valent iron (<i>n</i>ZVI)) in quartz sand at different input concentrations and flow velocities. We observed that the rheological modification of water by XG significantly enhanced the transport of both Fe-NPs, and the transport of <i>n</i>ZVI was better than that of <i>n</i>Fe₃O₄. With the increase of input concentration of Fe-NPs, the transport of <i>n</i>ZVI slightly declined, whereas the transport of <i>n</i>Fe₃O₄ initially increased and then decreased. The different responses of transport of <i>n</i>Fe₃O₄ and <i>n</i>ZVI to input concentrations were attributed to the unique shear-thinning rheological properties of XG suspensions with each type of Fe-NPs. We observed a novel non-monotonic relation between transport efficiency and flow velocity, where the transport of both Fe-NPs initially weakened and then enhanced as pore-water velocity rose within a certain range. We demonstrated that the formation of a non-flowing layer of XG on the surface of the porous medium was identified as the mechanism responsible for the non-monotonic transport behavior. These findings provide new insights into transport behavior of Fe-NPs in porous media under the rheological remediation of XG, and have practical implications for application of Fe-NPs in groundwater remediation.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143666578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hydrologic Regime Determines Catchment-Scale Dissolved Carbon Export Patterns","authors":"Xiao Li, Jian Wang, Wei Yin, Jianfeng Xu, Haibing Xiao, Hongying Zhao, Yongyong Shi, Lei Wang, Rui Hao, Haiyan Li, Yiming Huang, Hai Jiang, Zhihua Shi","doi":"10.1029/2024wr038221","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr038221","url":null,"abstract":"Hydrologic regimes are affecting terrestrial carbon transformation, chemical weathering and lateral transport. However, its impacts on dissolved carbon export patterns remains elusive. In this study, we collected a 2-year high-frequency dissolved inorganic (DIC) and organic carbon (DOC) dataset, namely a wet year (Rainfall = 1,158 mm) and a dry year (Rainfall = 603 mm). The results showed that drought led to a significant decrease in dissolved carbon concentration and discharge during the monitoring period. During non-storm periods, DIC and DOC shifted from dilution and chemostatic to enrichment patterns from wet to dry years, respectively. However, the export patterns were reversed during storm periods. DIC and DOC export patterns in wet year were dominated by dilution and chemostatic, respectively, while both patterns were dominated by dilution in dry year. Structural equation models revealed that the aridity index and temperature may affect dissolved carbon export patterns. We further classified storm events into three major types and conceptualized catchment-scale transport mechanisms for dissolved carbon. Dry-AMCs events result in DIC dilution and DOC chemostatic behavior, whereas Wet-AMCs events result in DIC chemostatic and DOC enrichment behavior due to increased hydrological connectivity. The third type corresponds to extreme events, where larger overland flow often results in DIC dilution but DOC enrichment behavior. These findings reveal the predominant role of drought in altering carbon lateral export by decreasing concentrations and fluxes and modifying export patterns.","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"214 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143660439","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Scale-Adaptive Urban Hydrologic Framework: Incorporating Network-Level Storm Drainage Pipes Representation","authors":"Taher Chegini, Hong-Yi Li, Y. C. Ethan Yang, Günter Blöschl, L. Ruby Leung","doi":"10.1029/2024wr037268","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2024wr037268","url":null,"abstract":"Below-ground urban stormwater networks (BUSNs) significantly influence urban flood dynamics, yet their representation at the watershed or larger scales remains challenging. We introduce a scalable urban hydrologic framework that centers on a novel network-level BUSN representation, balancing the needs for physical basis, parameter parsimony, and computational efficiency. Our framework conceptualizes an urban watershed into four interacting zones: hillslopes (natural), storm-sewersheds (urban), a sub-network channel (tributaries), and a main channel. We develop an innovative Graph Theory-based algorithm to derive network-level BUSN parameters from publicly available datasets, enabling efficient, scalable parameterization. We demonstrate this framework's applicability at nine representative watersheds in the Houston metropolitan region, USA, with urban imperviousness ranging from 0% to 64% and drainage areas ranging from 24 to 302 &lt;span data-altimg=\"/cms/asset/f8098d9f-2fef-4d0b-b240-71bd84956619/wrcr70008-math-0001.png\"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;mjx-container ctxtmenu_counter=\"128\" ctxtmenu_oldtabindex=\"1\" jax=\"CHTML\" role=\"application\" sre-explorer- style=\"font-size: 103%; position: relative;\" tabindex=\"0\"&gt;&lt;mjx-math aria-hidden=\"true\" location=\"graphic/wrcr70008-math-0001.png\"&gt;&lt;mjx-semantics&gt;&lt;mjx-mrow&gt;&lt;mjx-msup data-semantic-children=\"0,1\" data-semantic- data-semantic-role=\"unknown\" data-semantic-speech=\"km Superscript 2\" data-semantic-type=\"superscript\"&gt;&lt;mjx-mtext data-semantic-annotation=\"clearspeak:unit\" data-semantic-font=\"normal\" data-semantic- data-semantic-parent=\"2\" data-semantic-role=\"unknown\" data-semantic-type=\"text\"&gt;&lt;mjx-c&gt;&lt;/mjx-c&gt;&lt;mjx-c&gt;&lt;/mjx-c&gt;&lt;/mjx-mtext&gt;&lt;mjx-script style=\"vertical-align: 0.421em;\"&gt;&lt;mjx-mn data-semantic-annotation=\"clearspeak:simple\" data-semantic-font=\"normal\" data-semantic- data-semantic-parent=\"2\" data-semantic-role=\"integer\" data-semantic-type=\"number\" size=\"s\"&gt;&lt;mjx-c&gt;&lt;/mjx-c&gt;&lt;/mjx-mn&gt;&lt;/mjx-script&gt;&lt;/mjx-msup&gt;&lt;/mjx-mrow&gt;&lt;/mjx-semantics&gt;&lt;/mjx-math&gt;&lt;mjx-assistive-mml display=\"inline\" unselectable=\"on\"&gt;&lt;math altimg=\"urn:x-wiley:00431397:media:wrcr70008:wrcr70008-math-0001\" display=\"inline\" location=\"graphic/wrcr70008-math-0001.png\" xmlns=\"http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML\"&gt;&lt;semantics&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;msup data-semantic-=\"\" data-semantic-children=\"0,1\" data-semantic-role=\"unknown\" data-semantic-speech=\"km Superscript 2\" data-semantic-type=\"superscript\"&gt;&lt;mtext data-semantic-=\"\" data-semantic-annotation=\"clearspeak:unit\" data-semantic-font=\"normal\" data-semantic-parent=\"2\" data-semantic-role=\"unknown\" data-semantic-type=\"text\"&gt;km&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;mn data-semantic-=\"\" data-semantic-annotation=\"clearspeak:simple\" data-semantic-font=\"normal\" data-semantic-parent=\"2\" data-semantic-role=\"integer\" data-semantic-type=\"number\"&gt;2&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/msup&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;${text{km}}^{2}$&lt;/annotation&gt;&lt;/semantics&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/mjx-assistive-mml&gt;&lt;/mjx-container&gt;. Our model achieves satisfying computational efficiency, completing hourly time step simulations for 18 years in less than 5 sec per ","PeriodicalId":23799,"journal":{"name":"Water Resources Research","volume":"32 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143660442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}