Pathogens最新文献

{"title":"Humoral and T-Cell-Mediated Immunity Against <i>Phlebotomus perniciosus</i> Salivary Proteins in Dogs from a Leishmaniosis-Endemic Area.","authors":"Núria Balsells-Aguilar, Maria Magdalena Alcover, Marta Baxarias, Alejandra Álvarez-Fernández, Lourdes Alarcón, Petra Sumova, Petr Volf, Laia Solano-Gallego","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060576","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060576","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Compounds in sand fly saliva elicit specific immune responses that may play a role in the establishment of canine <i>Leishmania</i> infection. Although canine antibodies to anti-sand fly saliva antigens have been extensively studied, little is known about cellular immune responses against <i>Phlebotomus perniciosus</i> salivary proteins. This study aimed to explore humoral and T-cell-mediated immunity against <i>P. perniciosus</i> salivary proteins in dogs (n = 85) from Mallorca (Spain), a leishmaniosis-endemic area, and find correlations with demographic (age, sex, and breed) and parasite-specific immunological parameters. Anti-sand fly saliva IgG was examined using a <i>P. perniciosus</i> whole salivary gland homogenate (SGH) ELISA and recombinant salivary protein rSP03B ELISA. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) release whole blood assays with <i>L. infantum</i> soluble antigen (LSA), SGH, and rSP03B were also performed. Positive correlations were found between IgG levels in the SGH and rSP03B tests and between concentrations of SGH IFN-γ and rSP03B IFN-γ. While concentrations of SGH IFN-γ and rSP03B IFN-γ were low and produced only by a minority of dogs (less than 20%), high levels and frequencies of LSA IFN-γ as well as anti-saliva IgG for SGH and rSP03B were detected in a majority of dogs (61% and 75%, respectively). LSA IFN-γ levels were positively correlated with age and <i>Leishmania</i>-specific antibodies. In conclusion, dogs from a leishmaniosis-endemic area presented high humoral immunity against <i>P. perniciosus</i> salivary proteins, but their cellular immunity to these proteins was low and less frequent.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12195746/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485447","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genetic Identification of Brazilian Mammalian Hosts of <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>: Improving Blood Meal Source Discrimination in Vector-Borne Transmission.","authors":"Quezia Moura Oliveira, Thaíla Santos Pessanha, Alena Mayo Iñiguez","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060579","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060579","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The detection of food sources of blood-sucking vectors is essential for a better understanding of the hosts, reservoirs, and other fauna that participate in the transmission web of hemoparasites. The molecular identification of triatomine blood meal sources (BMSs) has been shown to be highly sensitive and taxonomically specific when compared to the immunological method. The application of molecular cloning makes it possible to identify multiple BMS species and/or different individuals/haplotypes of the same vertebrate species in a single triatomine specimen. In Brazil, the molecular detection of BMSs is incipient, with insufficient genetic information on the species of animals involved in the transmission of <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>. In this work, we evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of a molecular approach using molecular cloning for the detection of multiple Brazilian mammalian species. The DNA was extracted from blood clots of 13 species of canids, bats, xenarthral, marsupials, and rodents. Serial proportions were used to formulate mixtures combining taxonomically close (belonging to the same family or order) and taxonomically distant (different families) species. The results showed that GenBank lacks reference sequences for some native species tested, such as the sylvatic rodent, <i>Necromys lasiurus</i>, and the wild canid, <i>Lycalopex gymnocercus,</i> for <i>cyt</i>b and 12S rDNA, and the rodent <i>Oecomys cleberi</i> for 12S rDNA. The study also demonstrated that it is possible to detect multiple different species, even for those that are taxonomically close. This approach was proven to be efficient for the detection of species in equal and even in disparate unequal proportions, which could represent complementary information about the diversity of potential hosts of <i>T. cruzi.</i> The detection of multiple BMS species in mixed samples provides a more comprehensive and accurate landscape of <i>T. cruzi</i> transmission in nature.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12195716/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485442","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An Umbrella Review of E-Cigarettes' Impact on Oral Microbiota and Biofilm Buildup.","authors":"Beatriz Panariello, Fabrízio Dias Panariello, Ashminie Misir, Eliane Porto Barboza","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060578","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060578","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>E-cigarettes, a form of electronic nicotine delivery system (ENDS), have gained significant popularity, particularly among adolescents who often view vaping as a \"cool\" lifestyle choice. This growing trend has spurred extensive research on the effects of ENDS on both oral and systemic health. By synthesizing data from systematic reviews and meta-analyses, this umbrella review offers a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of e-cigarettes on oral biofilm accumulation and microbiota composition. A systematic search was conducted up to 12 March 2025, across PubMed/MEDLINE, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, and Scopus for studies published between 2015 and 2025. Ten studies met the eligibility criteria. The quality of the selected papers, as assessed using the AMSTAR 2 tool, ranged from moderate to high. The findings of this review suggest that e-cigarette use may contribute to dysbiosis in the oral microbiota and foster biofilm accumulation, thereby increasing the risk of oral diseases such as periodontitis, peri-implantitis, oral candidiasis, and caries. The findings also highlight the need for further research into the long-term effects of e-cigarette use on oral health. This review is registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251025639).</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12196310/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485380","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparative Evaluation of a Multistrain Indirect ELISA Targeting Anti- p26 and gp45 Antibodies for EIAV Detection.","authors":"Angela Ostuni, Raffaele Frontoso, Maria Antonietta Crudele, Lorella Barca, Mario Amati, Raffaele Boni, Jolanda De Vendel, Paolo Raimondi, Alfonso Bavoso","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060575","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060575","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV), a lentivirus marked by considerable genetic variability, poses significant diagnostic challenges. Existing diagnostic tools encompass the Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Assay (AGID), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Western blotting (WB). ELISA and AGID mainly utilize the p26 capsid protein, often sourced from the Wyoming reference strain. To broaden the range of viral proteins and strains employed in these immunoassays, we previously developed a novel p26/double-strain gp45 indirect ELISA. In this study, we evaluated the performance of this ELISA in comparison to two commercial EIAV ELISAs using Cohen's Kappa test and Bayesian Latent Class Analysis (BLCA), a statistical method that estimates test performance without requiring a perfect reference standard. A comparison with the official classification of the sera by the Italian Veterinary Service was also performed. A total of 372 serum samples, including 96 that were positives by all three tests, were analyzed. Results from both Cohen's Kappa test and BLCA, alongside comparison with official classifications, affirm the diagnostic reliability of the two commercial ELISAs and suggest that the novel ELISA, with its enhanced antigenic diversity, could offer an accurate and reliable diagnostic option for EIAV. This novel assay enhances existing commercial ELISAs and has the potential to strengthen routine diagnostic workflows.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12196156/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Longitudinal Monitoring of Mono- and Coinfections Involving Primary Porcine Reproductive Viruses (PCV2, PPV1, and PRRSV) as Well as Emerging Viruses (PCV3, PCV4, and nPPVs) in Primiparous and Multiparous Sows and Their Litters.","authors":"Diana S Vargas-Bermudez, Gina Polo, Jose Dario Mogollon, Jairo Jaime","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060573","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060573","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Porcine reproductive failure (PRF) has multiple etiological origins, primarily involving the viruses PCV2, PPV1, and PRRSV. Some emerging viruses, such as PCV3, PCV4, and novel parvoviruses (nPPVs), have also been suggested as contributors. In this study, we longitudinally evaluated 40 healthy sows (20 gilts and 20 multiparous sows) over three phases: pregnancy (PP), farrowing (FP), and their litters during lactation (LP). We detected viruses through PCR and serology in mono- and coinfections. The results showed that primary viruses were present during all three phases, with PCV2 being the most frequently detected. PCV3 positivity was highest at the time of insemination, and PPV1 was found in all. Additionally, PPV1-positive fetuses and pre-suckling piglets were identified, indicating vertical transmission. PRRSV was also present in an unstable herd, with the PRRSV2 lineage A detected and evidence of vertical transmission. The majority of coinfections were either dual or triple. The most common coinfections in the PP and LP were PCV2/PPV1 and PCV2/PCV3, while in the FF, PCV2/PPV1 and PCV2/PRRSV predominated. Notably, coinfection PCV2/PPV1 impacted the replication of PCV2. In contrast, the likelihood of detecting PRRSV decreased in fetuses coinfected with PRRSV and either PCV2, PCV3, or PPV1. The detected viruses exhibited low viral loads, indicating subclinical infections. Therefore, we propose recognizing a subclinical presentation of PRF and establishing criteria to differentiate between this and symptomatic reproductive disease.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12196009/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prevalence and <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> Genotypes Circulating in Five Wild Corvid Species from Romania.","authors":"Călin Mircea Gherman, Anamaria Balea, Adriana Györke, Zsuzsa Kalmár, Angela Monica Ionică, Isabelle Villena, Furio Spano, Stéphane de Craeye, Vasile Cozma","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060572","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060572","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The apicomplexan parasite <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> can potentially infect all warm-blooded animals, including birds, which, due to their high dispersal capabilities, are considered a significant candidate group of sentinel animals that reveal environmental contamination with this protozoan. In the present study, the serologic and molecular prevalences of <i>T. gondii</i> infection were determined in 333 corvids from Romania. Paired meat juice (n = 333) and heart samples (n = 244) were collected and analyzed using the modified agglutination test for antibodies, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for DNA, and SAG2 molecular marker sequencing for genotyping. The overall <i>T. gondii</i> antibodies prevalence was 19.5%, with 48.1% infected jackdaws, 72.8% rooks, 89.7% hooded crows, 77.5% magpies, and 42.9% jays. Of 244 heart samples analyzed with PCR amplification, only 3 (1.2%) resulted positive and were shown to belong to genotype III through the sequencing of the SAG2 amplicon. This is the first extensive study on <i>T</i>. <i>gondii</i> in crows from Romania.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12196500/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485396","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Systemic Antifolate Chemotherapy Does Not Select for Fluconazole-Resistant <i>Candida</i>: A Multicenter Clinical Study.","authors":"Dawid Żyrek, Joanna Nowicka, Magdalena Pajączkowska, Mariola Paściak, Katarzyna Machnik, Tomasz Werner, Zygmunt Konieczny, Piotr Jędrzejczak, Dominika Raźniewska, Gabriela Fijałkowska, Michał Piątek, Barbara Radecka, Kinga Żyrek, Elżbieta Woźniak-Grygiel, Iwona Dzieńdziora-Urbińska","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060574","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060574","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Previous studies have demonstrated that <i>Candida</i> spp. isolates exposed in vitro to the folic acid antagonist methotrexate may develop multidrug cross-resistance to azole antifungals. The aim of this study was to determine whether systemic therapy with antineoplastic antifolates-pemetrexed or methotrexate-constitutes a risk factor for colonization or infection with fluconazole-resistant yeasts. The study group comprised 44 cancer patients who received high-dose systemic antifolate therapy, while the control group consisted of 48 patients without prior exposure to either methotrexate or pemetrexed. Oral swabs and relevant clinical data were collected from all participants. In total, 109 fungal strains representing 13 species were isolated, identified, and subsequently tested for fluconazole susceptibility. Fluconazole-resistant isolates were identified in 4 out of 44 (9.1%) antifolate-treated patients and in 3 out of 48 (6.3%) control patients. Our findings suggest that, although this phenomenon occurs in vitro, systemic antineoplastic antifolate therapy does not induce azole resistance among endogenous yeast species in vivo.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12195857/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485399","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell (Ilc2)-Deficient Mice Are Transcriptionally Constrained During <i>Nippostrongylus brasiliensis</i> Infection.","authors":"Damarius S Fleming, Fang Liu, Joseph F Urban, Robert W Li","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060571","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060571","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Mouse models serve as a means of examining immune changes when genes of interest are knocked out (KO). One group of immune gene-producing cells that have been identified is type 2 innate lymphoid cells (Ilc2). These cells are involved in the production of Th2 equivalent immune responses and signal cytokine production during the resolution of <i>Nippostrongylus brasiliensis</i> parasite infection in mice lungs. However, many questions about Ilc2 activity in the gut remain. To study this, retinoic acid receptor (RAR)-related orphan receptor alpha (<i>RORα</i>)-deficient mice were infected with adult <i>N. brasiliensis</i> and arranged into four treatment groups. Ten days post-infection (dpi), mouse ileum tissue was extracted for RNA-Seq. The <i>RORα</i>-deficient mice showed little change in gene expression at 10 dpi (N = 51) when compared to the WT mice at 10 dpi (N = 915), displaying dysregulation within the mouse gut. Based on the results, the gene expression in the gut of Ilc2-deficient mice denoted that the inability to craft Ilc2 cells left the mice unable to mount classical helminth immune responses involving humoral, mast cell, and antibody Th2-driven reactions. Overall, the results showed the importance of Ilc2 in the gut during <i>N. brasiliensis</i> infections and the effect that the lack of these cells had on immunity.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12195684/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485470","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genomic Insights into the Pathogenicity of Hypervirulent <i>Aeromonas hydrophila</i> Strain D4 Isolated from Diseased Blunt Snout Bream with the Epidemic Sequence Type 251 Clones.","authors":"Li Xu, Xingyu Kang, Zhicheng Wang, Zuyuan Xiao, Yi Luo","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060570","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060570","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Aeromonas hydrophila</i> ST251 is a crucial pathogen responsible for the outbreaks of Motile <i>Aeromonas</i> Septicemia (MAS) in global aquaculture. To elucidate the genetic basis underlying its hypervirulence, we investigated strain D4, an ST251 isolate recovered from diseased blunt snout bream. Phenotypic assays revealed that, compared to the environmental strain ATCC 7966^T, D4 exhibited enhanced motility, hemolytic activity, and protease production. Average nucleotide identity (ANI) analysis demonstrated that D4 clustered within a distinct ST251 clade, with ANI values ≥ 99.74%. Comparative genomic analysis of D4, nine additional ST251 strains, and ATCC 7966^T identified multiple unique genomic islands in ST251 strains, including pathways for <i>myo</i>-inositol and L-fucose utilization and a pseudaminic acid biosynthesis gene cluster. These genetic elements are associated with nutrient acquisition and flagellar assembly, potentially enhancing colonization and environmental adaptability. In addition, distinct plasmids and prophages in ST251 strains may contribute to host adaptation and virulence by regulating stress responses and virulence-associated genes. These findings offer new insights into the molecular mechanisms driving the pathogenicity and adaptability of hypervirulent <i>A. hydrophila</i> ST251 strains.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12195866/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485445","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Effects of High-Dose Probiotic Supplementation on Immune Activation and Neurocognitive Disorders in People Living with HIV Undergoing Successful Antiretroviral Treatment: The Procog Study.","authors":"Matteo Vassallo, Margaux Zerlini, Roxane Fabre, Heloise Joly, Jacques Durant, Alain Makinson, Amandine Mauries, Jacqueline Capeau, Soraya Fellahi, Jean-Philippe Bastard, Christian Pradier, Christine Lebrun-Frenay","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14060568","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14060568","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) remains high despite antiretroviral treatment (ART). Changes in gut microbiota and persistent immune activation have been suggested as possible causes, while the role of probiotic supplementation remains controversial.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We included subjects with mild HAND and successful ART. They were randomized to receive either 6 months of high-dose probiotic supplementation or to continue with only ART. Immune activation markers and neuropsychological testing were performed at baseline and the end of follow-up. Neuropsychological testing assessed learning, episodic memory, attention/concentration, executive functions, language, information processing speed, and motor skills. Z- and T-scores were calculated for all domains but motor skills, allowing the measurement of the global deficit score (GDS). The trajectories of neuropsychological performances and immune activation markers were compared between groups.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>From September 2020 to July 2021, 31 PWHs were included (median age 62, 73% men, CD4 744 cc/mm³), and 28 completed the 6-month follow-up. The characteristics of the subjects and their neuropsychological performance at baseline in the two groups were similar. At the end of follow-up, probiotics did not have any impact on immune activation markers, while they were associated with better improvement in GDS (T-score 0.0 in controls vs. -0.3 in probiotics, <i>p</i> = 0.048) and the attention/concentration test (Z-score 0.4 in controls vs. 1.2 in probiotics, <i>p</i> = 0.035).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Oral supplementation with high-dose probiotics for 6 months did not affect systemic immune activation but was associated with improved neurocognitive performance, suggesting benefits from probiotic supplementation for mild HAND.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-06-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12196004/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144485402","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}