Pathogens最新文献

{"title":"Experimental Infection of Ferrets with <i>Bartonella henselae</i>: In Search of a Novel Animal Model for Zoonotic Bartonellosis.","authors":"Erin Lashnits, Cynthia Robveille, Pradeep Neupane, Toni Richardson, Keith Linder, Gabriel McKeon, Ricardo Maggi, Edward B Breitschwerdt","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050421","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050421","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Bartonella henselae</i> is an important zoonotic pathogen with a wide range of clinical manifestations in humans. Despite advances in understanding its pathogenesis, there is no broadly applicable laboratory animal model for bartonellosis. This study aimed to assess the potential utility of an experimental model of chronic <i>B. henselae</i> infection using ferrets, a species previously utilized in various human pathogen studies. Six ferrets (n = 6) were divided into three groups: a control group (n = 2), a low-dose infection group (n = 2), and a high-dose infection group (n = 2). The two infection groups were inoculated intradermally with 10⁵ (low dose) and 10⁹ (high dose) CFU/mL <i>B. henselae</i>, respectively. Clinical signs, serological responses, and bacteriological findings were monitored over seven weeks; ferrets were then euthanized and tissues were examined histologically. Only minimal or transient systemic clinical signs and laboratory abnormalities developed in <i>B. henselae</i> inoculated ferrets. The high-dose group seroconverted to <i>B. henselae</i> antigen within two weeks, maintaining elevated titers throughout the study. Histopathological examination revealed that four <i>B. henselae</i>-infected ferrets had notable microscopic inflammatory lesions in the liver parenchyma (3/4), heart (1/4), and brain (1/4); similar lesions were not observed in the tissues of the two control ferrets. Despite the presence of microscopic lesions and seroconversion in the high-dose group, bacteremia was not documented and <i>B. henselae</i> DNA was not successfully amplified by quantitative PCR from lesional organs. This pilot study demonstrated that ferrets may serve as a promising model for investigating <i>B. henselae</i> pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12113900/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Main Arboviruses and Virus Detection Methods in Vectors: Current Approaches and Future Perspectives.","authors":"Amanda Montezano Cintra, Nathália Mayumi Noda-Nicolau, Milena Leite de Oliveira Soman, Pedro Henrique de Andrade Affonso, Guilherme Targino Valente, Rejane Maria Tommasini Grotto","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050416","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050416","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) represent a growing concern for global public and veterinary health, with cases reported across all continents. This review presents a broad overview of the geographic distribution of arboviruses transmitted by insect vectors, emphasizing the importance of early viral detection as a cornerstone of surveillance and outbreak preparedness. Special attention is given to the phenomenon of zoonotic spillover, where viruses maintained in natural transmission cycles often involving wildlife reservoirs and arthropod vectors cross into human populations, triggering emergent or re-emergent outbreaks. This article discusses key arboviral families of medical and veterinary significance, including Togaviridae, Flaviviridae, Nairoviridae, Phenuiviridae, Peribunyaviridae, and Orthomyxoviridae, highlighting their molecular and structural characteristics. These features are essential for guiding the development and implementation of specific and sensitive detection strategies. In addition, this work provides a comparative analysis of diverse laboratory methodologies for viral detection in vectors. From serological assays and viral isolation to advanced molecular tools and next-generation sequencing, we explore their principles, practical applications, and context-dependent advantages and limitations. By compiling this information, we aim to support researchers and public health professionals in selecting the most appropriate tools for vector surveillance, ultimately contributing to improved response strategies in the face of arboviral threats.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114347/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Agriculturally Sourced Multidrug-Resistant <i>Escherichia coli</i> for Use as Control Strains.","authors":"James E Wells, Lisa M Durso, Abasiofiok M Ibekwe, Jonathan G Frye, Manan Sharma, Clinton F Williams, Md Shamimuzzaman","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050417","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050417","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bacteriological control strains with known characteristics ensure consistency and reproducibility of assay performance across different laboratories and are an important cornerstone of quality control in the microbiology laboratory. Ideally, control strains should be representative of the assay target and be widely available from reputable sources. However, for work involving antibiotic resistance most controls come from human and veterinary clinical sources and are not optimized for work in agriculturally impacted environments or not widely available. The objective of this work was to identify and make widely available two <i>E. coli</i> isolates sourced from agricultural production settings that could be used as external controls supporting method development, research and environmental monitoring for extended spectrum β-lactamase producing (ESBL) and tetracycline resistant <i>Escherichia coli</i>. Previously collected <i>E. coli</i> suspects were screened based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing data, then confirmed as <i>E. coli</i> and characterized both phenotypically and genotypically. The positive control strain, ARS-C301 was ESBL positive and contained the CTX-M-55 and <i>tet</i>(A) genes, and the negative control strain, ARS-C101 was negative for both targets. Here we introduce two agriculturally sourced, fully characterized, and genetically sequenced control strains for use as laboratory controls in research involving extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing (ESBL) and tetracycline-resistant <i>Escherichia coli</i> isolated from the environment, available via publicly accessible culture collections, and commercially as a quantitative pellet.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114057/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160709","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evidence Suggesting Possible Exposure to Influenza A Virus in Neotropical Bats from Mexico.","authors":"Brenda Aline Maya-Badillo, Guillermo Orta-Pineda, Gerardo Suzán, Karen Elizabeth Rivera-Rosas, Diego Zavala-Vasco, Adrián Uribe-Jacinto, Andrea Chaves, Alfredo Grande-Cano, René Segura-Velazquez, José Iván Sánchez-Betancourt","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050414","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050414","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>With the first evidence of the association between bats and influenza A viruses, various studies have begun to emerge to understand this interesting and important association among bats conservation, animal health, and public health. This study aimed to verify the presence of anti-influenza A vipothesrus antibodies, as well as the molecular identification of these viruses in bats distributed in forest fragments located in southeastern Mexico. Blood samples were obtained from 600 bats belonging to 24 different species, using an enzyme immunoassay to detect antibodies against the nucleoprotein antigen of the avian influenza A virus. Likewise, oropharyngeal swabs, rectal swabs and organs were taken for quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) of these viruses. A total of six bats (1%) tested positive either by serology or molecular methods, not both simultaneously. Although this suggests a very low prevalence of influenza A viruses in Mexican bats, it is the first study to address this association and, following the precautionary principle, we consider it necessary to establish systematic monitoring of the presence of influenza A in bats, since they are known to harbor infectious agents with zoonotic potential. Furthermore, it is possible that the association of influenza A viruses circulating in Latin American bats has an important co-evolutionary component with some bat species with exclusive distribution in the American continent.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114349/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160957","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Antiparasitic Activity of Chalepensin and Graveoline Isolated from <i>Ruta chalepensis</i> L.: In Vitro Evaluation Against <i>Strongyloides venezuelensis</i>.","authors":"Nancy E Rodríguez-Garza, Miguel Marín, Javier Sánchez-Montejo, Joel H Elizondo-Luévano, Aldo F Bazaldúa-Rodríguez, Ramiro Quintanilla-Licea, César I Romo-Sáenz, Rafael Peláez, Antonio Muro, Julio López-Abán","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050419","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050419","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Parasitic diseases constitute a significant challenge to global public health, with <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> ranking among the most prevalent and clinically significant parasites. The limitations of current nematocidal therapies highlight an urgent need for novel treatment strategies. In this study, the nematocidal activity of chalepensin and graveoline, two compounds isolated from <i>Ruta chalepensis</i>, was evaluated against larval and adult stages of <i>Strongyloides venezuelensis</i> (model for <i>S. stercoralis</i>). The in vitro efficacy of these compounds was assessed on third-stage infective larvae (L3) and adult parthenogenetic females at various time points, while cytotoxicity was determined using Vero cells to calculate selectivity indices (SI). Both compounds showed good antiparasitic activity, but chalepensin exhibited superior nematocidal activity compared to graveoline, with an LC₅₀ of 3.9 µg/mL and an SI of 990 for L3, and an LC₅₀ of 16.8 µg/mL and an SI of 200 for adult females at 72 h. Morphological analysis via scanning electron microscopy in adult females revealed that graveoline induced mostly cuticle detachment, while chalepensin caused protuberances across the parasite body. These findings suggest that both compounds possess promising antiparasitic potential, with chalepensin emerging as a particularly potent candidate for further exploration.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114433/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160808","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluating SARS-CoV-2 T Cell Immunity in COVID-19-Naive Vaccinated Individuals with and Without Spike Protein IgG Antibodies.","authors":"Vassiliki C Pitiriga, Myrto Papamentzelopoulou, Dimitris Nikoloudis, Chrysa Saldari, Kanella E Konstantinakou, Irene V Vasileiou, Athanasios Tsakris","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050415","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050415","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background:</b> The effective management of vaccination schedules requires thorough knowledge of an individual's immunoprotection level, including the interaction and persistence of immune responses at both the humoral and cellular levels following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. This study aimed to investigate the potential relationship between the levels and duration of the SARS-CoV-2 T cell response and IgG measurements in a cohort of COVID-19-naive individuals who had received the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. <b>Methods:</b> We performed a retrospective descriptive analysis utilizing data retrieved from the electronic medical records of consecutive COVID-19-naive and vaccinated adult individuals who underwent COVID-19 immunity screening at a private healthcare center from September 2021 to September 2022. T cell response was evaluated using the IGRA methodology T-SPOT^®.COVID (Oxford Immunotec, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK). <b>Results:</b> A retrospective analysis was conducted on a cohort of 262 individuals, comprising 148 females (56.5%) and 114 males (43.5%), with ages ranging from 17 to 92 years (mean age: 59.47 ± 15.5 years). Among the participants, 216/262 (82.4%) tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies (group A), while 46/262 (17.6%) tested positive (group B). No significant difference was observed between the two groups in the time period post vaccination, with the mean times after vaccination being 136.38 ± 78.68 days in group A and 140.6 ± 79.5 days in group B (T-test, <i>p</i> = 0.74). Among the two groups, a positive T cell reaction against the S antigen was reported in 132/216 (61.1%) participants in group A and 39/46 (84.8%) in group B (<i>X</i>² test, <i>p</i> = 0.002). Additionally, individuals with a positive antibody response demonstrated statistically significant higher T SPOT results compared to those with undetectable antibody levels, with a mean SFC count of 125.70 for group A and 158.73 for group B (Mann-Whitney test, <i>p</i> = 0.006). <b>Conclusions:</b> Our findings suggest that T cell immunity may persist even when antibodies are undetectable, highlighting the potential role of cellular immunity in providing protection against COVID-19 over time. Additionally, this study demonstrates a significant correlation between humoral and cellular immune response levels to SARS-CoV-2, suggesting that the activation of humoral immunity following SARS-CoV-2 vaccination is associated with higher levels of cellular immunity compared to individuals with undetectable antibody levels.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12113767/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160946","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Green Antimicrobials: Innovative Applications of Hops Extracts as Biocontrol Agents.","authors":"Ana I Paniagua-García, Ana Ibáñez, Rebeca Díez-Antolínez","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050418","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050418","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Natural compounds represent a fundamental source of antimicrobial agents with applications in numerous industries. This study investigates the antimicrobial properties of different fractions of extracts obtained from six hop varieties, as well as of certain compounds contained in hops and other plants. The results indicate that soft resins exhibit the strongest antibacterial activity among the hop-derived fractions evaluated, reaching a minimum MIC₉₀ value of 25 µg/mL (Fuggle variety) against Gram-positive bacteria (<i>S. aureus</i>) and 50 µg/mL (Chinook variety) against Gram-negative bacteria (<i>E. coli</i>). Furthermore, the composition of hops varies among varieties, resulting in divergent antimicrobial patterns, indicating the necessity for further research to elucidate the origins of these activities. Additionally, while hop-derived fractions exhibited noteworthy antibacterial properties, their antifungal activity against <i>A. niger</i> was found to be negligible. In addition, natural compounds such as carvacrol and thymol demonstrated the lowest MIC₉₀ values against <i>E. coli</i> (130 and 250 µg/mL, respectively) and <i>S. aureus</i> (280 and 250 µg/mL, respectively). Moreover, xanthohumol exhibited a better MIC₉₀ value against <i>S. aureus</i> (3 µg/mL), while no inhibitory effects were observed against <i>E. coli</i>. These insights highlight the necessity for further exploration of natural extracts in the development of new antimicrobial agents.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12113658/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160983","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Test Performance Study on qPCR Assays for Detection of <i>Phyllosticta citricarpa</i>.","authors":"Tjaša Jakomin, Janja Zajc Žunič, Polona Kogovšek","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050413","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050413","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Citrus black spot (CBS), caused by the fungus <i>Phyllosticta citricarpa</i>, significantly affects citrus fruit marketability and can lead to premature fruit drop. Accurate and reliable detection of this quarantine pathogen is crucial, particularly for asymptomatic plant material. This study evaluated two qPCR assays, the EPPO recommended assay PC and assay Pc-TEF1, based on <i>TEF</i> region, for detecting <i>P. citricarpa</i> through a collaborative test performance study (TPS). DNA from the isolates of <i>Phyllosticta</i> spp. and other fungi was spiked into citrus fruit peel extracts (lemon, orange, and pomelo) and distributed among 13 laboratories. Sample and qPCR assay stability under typical transport conditions was confirmed, although prolonged storage affected Pc-TEF1 assay performance. The assays were assessed based on sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and repeatability. Both assays demonstrated high performance, with repeatability and reproducibility exceeding 95%. The PC assay, as expected, detected different related <i>Phyllosticta</i> species, while Pc-TEF1 showed higher specificity for <i>P. citricarpa</i> included in the TPS alone. Additionally, inhibitory effects were observed specifically in the pomelo peel samples, suggesting matrix-dependent variability. This TPS confirms that both PC and Pc-TEF1 qPCR assays are robust. Further evaluation of the qPCR assays would support the selection of the most reliable assays for the detection of <i>P. citricarpa</i>, contributing to the effective management of CBS disease in citrus production and trade.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114453/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160803","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Molecular Characterization of Clinical Isolates of Methicillin-Resistant <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> from Chonburi, Thailand.","authors":"Patcharawalai Wassanarungroj, Panida Nobthai, Sirigade Ruekit, Apichai Srijan, Prawet Sukhchat, Oralak Serichantalergs, John M Crawford, Brett E Swierczewski, Sidhartha Chaudhury, Paphavee Lertsethtakarn","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050406","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050406","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> (<i>S. aureus</i>), especially methicillin-resistant <i>S. aureus</i> (MRSA), remains a major public health concern. This study reports the antimicrobial resistance profiles and molecular characteristics of 31 <i>S. aureus</i> isolated during 2017-2018 from inpatient and outpatient clinical specimens from Queen Sirikit Naval Hospital (QSH) in Chonburi province, Thailand. All isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. Staphylococcal cassette chromosome <i>mec</i> (SCC<i>mec</i>) typing, Panton-Valentine leukocidin (<i>pvl</i>) toxin, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and staphylococcal protein A (<i>spa</i>) typing were performed. Twenty-seven isolates were confirmed to be MRSA and exhibited resistance to up to seven antibiotics classes. The main MLST type was SCC<i>mec</i> type II (51.9%) and ST764 (55.6%). Five <i>spa</i> types were identified with t045 (55.6%) as the major type. All 31 <i>S. aureus</i> isolates were grouped into seven types using PFGE with the SCC<i>mec</i>II-ST764-t045 clone being the most prevalent. Overall, our findings reveal that the <i>S. aureus</i> isolates in this study differ from previous reports in Thailand, indicating a potential shift in local strains, highlighting the need for ongoing molecular surveillance of multidrug resistance patterns of MRSA in Southeast Asia.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114143/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160896","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seasonal Dynamics and Legionellosis-Associated Hospitalization in Spain: A Retrospective Study.","authors":"Enrique Gea-Izquierdo, Rossana Ruiz-Urbaez, Valentín Hernández-Barrera, Ángel Gil-de-Miguel","doi":"10.3390/pathogens14050411","DOIUrl":"10.3390/pathogens14050411","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Legionellosis is a serious respiratory disease with a high mortality rate, particularly if it is untreated or occurs in the immunocompromised. Legionellosis must be reported in the Spanish Epidemiological Surveillance System. To optimize the epidemiologic knowledge of legionellosis and improve prevention, we have investigated whether the disease is associated with seasonality. This study has described legionellosis cases, the temporal trend by seasonality, hospitalization rate, case fatality rate, and costs by autonomous community and season. We retrospectively reviewed cases of legionellosis, documented patient and clinical characteristics, diagnostics, and seasonality of infection. This study combined national legionellosis notification and hospital discharge data that were linked via the Spanish National Health Service to provide a dataset of hospitalized cases occurring between 2002 and 2021 in Spain. There was a significant increase in the number of legionellosis cases due to the season of the year in Spain. An association between legionellosis and factors related to seasonality is suggested. An increasing trend in case fatality rate, seasonality, and regionality and a decrease in legionellosis hospitalization in Spain were identified. The characterization of changes in legionellosis trend and seasonality and timely synchronization and harmonization of hospitalization records are essential to strengthen disease monitoring and inform potential interventions in an epidemiological way.</p>","PeriodicalId":19758,"journal":{"name":"Pathogens","volume":"14 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-04-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12114511/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144160493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}