Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics最新文献

{"title":"Seasonal asymmetries in the lag between insolation and surface air temperature over Iran during 1971–2017","authors":"Mohammad Darand ,&nbsp;Khabat Ghamari ,&nbsp;Mohammad Yasin Khaledyan ,&nbsp;Anmin Duan ,&nbsp;Jun Jian ,&nbsp;Yuepeng Pan","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106441","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106441","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The seasonal cycle in surface air temperature reflects the systematic variation in incoming solar radiation during a year. The current study focused on spatiotemporal analysis of the seasonal asymmetries in the lag between insolation and surface air temperature over Iran and the long-term trend over Iran. To do this, daily gridded surface air temperature data with spatial resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° over Iran during period 1971–2017 has been used. The results demonstrated that the seasonal cycle of surface air temperature did not coincide on annual harmonic. The time lag of maximum surface air temperature between insolation forcing and maximum surface air temperature response varies from 1 to 48 days across Iran. Maximum surface air temperature shows short lags over southeastern regions and long lags over western and northwestern regions. The time lag of minimum surface air temperature relative to winter solstice is less variable than maximum surface air temperature and differs from 26 to 48 days across Iran. The seasonal asymmetries (ASYM) which defined as the time lag of maximum surface air temperature relative to summer solstice minus the time lag of minimum surface air temperature relative to winter solstice generally showed positive values over the northwestern and western regions, indicating prolonged spring. Negative values over the southeastern, eastern and southwestern coastal regions of the Caspian Sea in the north, showing that the winter minimum surface air temperature is delayed more than the summer maximum surface air temperature. Most areas over the country have encountered negative trends in the time lag of minimum surface air temperature. These results suggest that changes in seasonal surface air temperature lags can be a potential predictor of shifting in climatic parameters at a seasonal time scale.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106441"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Boosting total electron content forecasting based on deep learning toward an operational service","authors":"María Graciela Molina ,&nbsp;Jorge H. Namour ,&nbsp;Claudio Cesaroni ,&nbsp;Luca Spogli ,&nbsp;Noelia B. Argüelles ,&nbsp;Eric N. Asamoah","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106427","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106427","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>We present a prediction model based on deep learning able to forecast ionospheric Total Electron Content at global level 24 h in advance. It has been conceived to operate under different space weather scenarios and in an operational framework. Three different deep learning (DL) techniques have been compared: Long Short Term Memory (LSTM), Gated Recurrent Units (GRU) and Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN). The modelling approach inherits by and extends what has been proposed by Cesaroni and co-authors (2020a). Specifically, the machine learning-based approach here reported is conceived to improve the first step of Cesaroni et al. (2020a), in which TEC is forecasted on 18 selected grid points of Global Ionospheric Maps (GIMs) using the geomagnetic global index Kp index as the external input.</div><div>CNN models provide better predictive capabilities than LSTM and GRU, and it has more robust behaviour under different space weather conditions. We also show how all the proposed models outperform the two naive models: the so-called “frozen ionosphere” or recurrence model and a 27 days averaged model.</div><div>The novelty of our approach is the operational capability based on an incremental learning method to prevent the aging of the trained models by updating the weights with little computational effort adding new information immediately after the 24-h forecasting. The improvement changed from RMSE of ∼6.5 TECu to ∼2.5 TECu.We also discuss limitations and the use of other space weather inputs (e.g. solar proxies, other geomagnetic indexes, etc) and the use of complementary data science techniques (e.g. data preparation, hyperparameter tuning, better data resolution, etc.) to enhance the forecasting in future works.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106427"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177699","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Strong thermospheric response to the almost undetectable substorm on May 29, 2023","authors":"Yongliang Zhang ,&nbsp;Qian Wu ,&nbsp;Wenbin Wang ,&nbsp;Larry Paxton ,&nbsp;Robert Schaefer ,&nbsp;Dong Lin ,&nbsp;Lying Qian ,&nbsp;Haonan Wu ,&nbsp;Kun Wu ,&nbsp;Ying Zou ,&nbsp;Martin Connors","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106430","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106430","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A ground based FPI (Fabry Perot Interferometer) at the Athabasca Observatory detected an unusual strong and storm-like equatorward meridional wind of up to 450 m/s on May 29, 2023, a geomagnetically quiet day (AE &lt; 150 nT, Kp &lt; 1). F18 DMSP SSUSI, a Far Ultra-Violet (FUV) spectrograph imager, observed a long lasting (∼7 h) auroral substorm on the same day. TIMED/GUVI data showed a O/N₂ depletion that extended to mid/low latitudes over a limited longitude range in the northern hemisphere. Concurrent SuperDARN measurements indicated strong plasma convection around the substorm location, suggesting a strong local heating (Joule and particle precipitation heating) near the substorm location. This strong and localized heating caused the storm-like response in the thermospheric meridional wind and composition. Furthermore, the FPI also observed a strong zonal wind (up to 180 m/s), which changed its direction from westward to eastward during the substorm. Such a change is due to the competition between the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force is westward with an equatorward meridional wind during the substorm; the direction of the pressure gradient force changed from westward to eastward due to changes in the relative locations of the observatory and the substorm. A strong IMF B_y and periodic variation in the IMF likely provide a favorable upstream condition for continuous energy input from the solar wind to the magnetosphere and/or the release of the stored magnetospheric energy into the thermosphere to drive the long duration substorm and the observed thermospheric changes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106430"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143176802","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Localized solar radiation zoning by combining spatially continuous estimates and Gaussian mixture models","authors":"Xuecheng Wang ,&nbsp;Peiran Xie ,&nbsp;Yiyi Xie ,&nbsp;Hou Jiang","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106432","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106432","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the increasing role of solar energy in the global decarbonization, precise geographical zoning of solar radiation becomes crucial. Traditional methods of solar radiation zoning struggle to accurately distinguish subtle spatial and temporal differences in solar radiation due to both sparse ground-based observations and the requirement for a predefined zone number, which limits their applicability for the demands of distributed photovoltaic system. This study introduces a novel method for localized solar radiation zoning, integrating spatially continuous solar radiation data with a Gaussian mixture model. High-precision spatiotemporal estimates of solar radiation are achieved by employing deep learning algorithms to analyze meteorological satellite imagery and digital elevation model data. The use of an infinite Gaussian mixture model along with variational inference allows for the adaptive determination of the number of solar radiation zones. The case study in Guangxi Province shows that incorporating Digital Elevation Model data reduces the root mean square error of global solar radiation estimates from 134.06 W/m² to 87.68 W/m² and accurately reveals temporal and spatial variability in both global and diffuse solar radiation. This approach not only prevents overfitting when the predefined upper bound surpasses the actual number of zones but also facilitates the development of zoning schemes that can range from fine-grained, capturing subtle variations, to coarse-grained, focusing on overall patterns. The outcomes lay a solid foundation for localized regional assessment and efficient utilization of solar energy resources.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106432"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177678","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of water vapor from CARRA reanalysis based on GNSS and radiosonde observation in the Arctic","authors":"Ce Zhang ,&nbsp;Shuaimin Wang ,&nbsp;Yuling Zhao ,&nbsp;Yujing Xu ,&nbsp;Jiajia Zhang ,&nbsp;Yanhan Mo ,&nbsp;Hong Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106431","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106431","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Arctic has a significant impact on global climate change because of its special geographical location. Meanwhile, water vapor is one of the most important atmospheric components influencing climate change. In this study, the accuracy of precipitable water vapor (PWV) from Copernicus Arctic Regional Reanalysis (CARRA) is evaluated with 45 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), 13 radiosonde stations and ERA5 reanalysis during 2020–2022 in the Arctic. The mean bias values of CARRA PWV using GNSS PWV, radiosonde PWV and ERA5 PWV are 0.30 mm, −0.00 mm and 0.21 mm, respectively. The results show that the CARRA PWV is mostly overestimated compared with GNSS and ERA5 PWV and not much different for the radiosonde PWV. The RMSE values of CARRA PWV using GNSS PWV, radiosonde PWV and ERA5 PWV are 0.71 mm, 0.40 mm and 0.67 mm, respectively. The results indicate that CARRA PWV has good agreement with GNSS PWV, radiosonde PWV and ERA5 PWV, but CARRA PWV is better agreement with radiosonde PWV. Afterwards, the seasonal bias and RMSE values of CARRA PWV using GNSS PWV, radiosonde PWV and ERA5 PWV are analyzed. The RMSE in the warm season is obviously higher than that in the cold season. Finally, the monthly RMSE values of CARRA PWV are analyzed. The results show that the RMSE values of CARRA PWV with respect to GNSS PWV, radiosonde PWV and ERA5 PWV are large in the warm season and small in the cold season, thereby indicating that the accuracy of CARRA PWV has obvious seasonality. The RMSE values of CARRA PWV and radiosonde PWV are smaller than the RMSE values of CARRA and GNSS PWV and CARRA PWV and ERA5 PWV in every month. The results illustrate that CARRA PWV has better consistency with radiosonde PWV compared with GNSS and ERA5 PWV even in every month.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106431"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143176800","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Determinants of diffuse solar radiation in urban and peatland areas based on weather and air pollutants","authors":"Arnida L. Latifah ,&nbsp;Amandha Affa Auliya ,&nbsp;Inna Syafarina ,&nbsp;Sheila Dewi Ayu Kusumaningtyas","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106419","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106419","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding solar radiation variability is essential for efficiently planning and managing solar energy systems. The transmission of solar radiation to the ground is generally affected by a variety of factors. This research deals with the impacts of weather and air pollution on the amount of diffuse solar radiation across two distinct environments, i.e., urban and peatland areas. Two stations in Jakarta, Kemayoran and Jagakarsa represent the urban area, while two stations in South Kalimantan, Pinang Habang and Jambu, represent the peatland area. Three machine learning-based models were used to estimate the amount of diffuse solar radiation related to weather and air pollution, namely Random Forest (RF), K-nearest neighbor (KNN), and Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LGBM). Five experiments were carried out using various combinations of predictor variables, including temperature, air pollutants, and cloud cover. The results of the experiments highlighted the significance of pollutants as predictive factors. All models demonstrated reliable results in capturing the variability of diffuse solar radiation in four stations, revealing that urban areas receive approximately half the amount of diffuse solar radiation compared to peatland areas, despite sharing a similar annual pattern. Among the models, RF model achieved the highest correlation coefficient with actual values, yielding the least error. Among the sites studied, the predictions from peatland areas closely aligned with the reference pattern. Furthermore, this study found that CO is the primary factor in predicting diffuse solar radiation in urban areas. Differently, PM_2.5 mostly impact the diffuse solar radiation in rural areas. This research underscores the critical role of air pollutants, particularly CO and PM_2.5, in determining solar radiation levels, which in turn affects the efficiency of solar energy systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106419"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177676","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Explanation of the data on densities of nitrogen oxides in the immediate neighborhood of ball lightning","authors":"Mikhail L. Shmatov","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106428","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106428","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The data on densities of nitrogen oxides in air sample, taken by M.T. Dmitriev in the immediate neighborhood of ball lightning, are explained for the first time within framework of ball lightning model based on the assumption that ball lightning has a core consisting of clouds of electrons and ions which oscillate with respect to each other and undergo the random motion disturbing the oscillatory one. According to the model, the nitrogen oxides in the air sample were produced mainly due to absorption of photons with energies of 100 eV to 10 keV, emitted by the ball lightning. The model also explains 75–80 s long lifetime of ball lightning observed by M.T. Dmitriev and yields that the ionizing radiation dose received by him was compatible with his survival.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106428"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177674","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Characterizing long-term cosmic ray time series with geometric network curvature metrics","authors":"D. Sierra-Porta","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106418","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2025.106418","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the relationship between geometry and nonlinear dynamics in time series of cosmic ray counts recorded at neutron monitors at ground stations. Using advanced geometric and topological analysis techniques, we construct complex networks from the time series and calculate curvature measures such as Ollivier-Ricci curvature, Forman-Ricci curvature, and Ricci flow for each series. The analysis reveals significant correlations between these curvature metrics and key parameters such as geomagnetic cutoff rigidity and detector latitude. In particular, Forman-Ricci curvature exhibits a robust negative correlation with cutoff rigidity (Pearson <span><math><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>85</mn></mrow></math></span>, Spearman <span><math><mrow><mi>ρ</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>86</mn></mrow></math></span>, <span><math><mi>p</mi></math></span>-value <span><math><mrow><mo>&lt;</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>5</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span>), while Ricci flow also shows a strong and highly significant inverse relationship with cutoff rigidity (Pearson <span><math><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>92</mn></mrow></math></span>, Spearman <span><math><mrow><mi>ρ</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>89</mn></mrow></math></span>, <span><math><mi>p</mi></math></span>-value <span><math><mrow><mo>&lt;</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>7</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span>). These results suggest that the geometrical structure of the networks, influenced by geomagnetic conditions, plays a crucial role in the variability, complexity, and fractality of cosmic ray time series. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of considering network topology and curvature metrics in the analysis of cosmic ray data, offering new perspectives for understanding space weather phenomena and improving predictive models. This integrative approach not only advances our knowledge of cosmic ray dynamics, but also has important implications for mitigating risks associated with space weather conditions on Earth.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 106418"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143177677","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Observation and simulation studies of ionospheric F-region in the South American and Antarctic sectors in the intense geomagnetic storm of August 2018","authors":"A.J. de Abreu ,&nbsp;E. Correia ,&nbsp;O.F. Jonah ,&nbsp;K. Venkatesh ,&nbsp;E.G. Thomas ,&nbsp;R. de Jesus ,&nbsp;M. Roberto ,&nbsp;J.R. Abalde ,&nbsp;P.R. Fagundes","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106394","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106394","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In this investigation, we present and discuss the ionospheric F region observations in the equatorial, low-, mid-, and near high-latitude regions in the South American and Antarctic sectors during the intense geomagnetic storm that occurred on 25–27 August 2018. The geomagnetic storm reached a minimum Dst of −175 nT at ∼0700 UT on 26 August. We present the variations of vertical total electron content (VTEC) from a chain of almost 200 GPS stations, covering the South American and Antarctic sectors. A comparison with model simulations from the Thermosphere Ionosphere Electrodynamics General Circulation Model (TIE-GCM) is realized. The results obtained show that during the main phase of the storm, a southward Bz component of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) and an eastward prompt penetration electric field (PPEF) can be observed, but they had no significant impact on the ionospheric plasma. A long recovery phase a predominance of positive phase is observed during daytime. The observations show the effects of an unusual case of multiple PPEF, occurred on 26 August, and effects of thermospheric winds disturbances, occurred on 27 August, resulting in increased VTEC values on both days. The TIE-GCM model reproduces the VTEC increases during the main and recovery phases from mid-latitudes to the equatorial region, but it underestimates the observed values near high-latitudes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"266 ","pages":"Article 106394"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143179765","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dual polarization characteristics of three consecutive squall lines with heavy rainfall","authors":"Fujing Wan ,&nbsp;Xiuguang Diao ,&nbsp;Huaji Pang","doi":"10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106404","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jastp.2024.106404","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Herein, the dynamic and cloud physical structure characteristics of three squall lines with heavy precipitation on May 26, 2021 (Case A), June 30, 2021 (Case B) and July 31 to August 1, 2021 (Case C) were analyzed based on S-band dual polarization weather radar data. The results showed that: (1) High concentrations of large liquid particles accumulated in the low-level strong echo areas of the three squall lines, with predominant presence on both sides of the front of the squall line. The high-value area of the echo contained melted small hail particles, whereas the bow-shaped echo area was primarily composed of small liquid particles. (2) From vertical structures, different structural characteristics were observed on the front and back of the squall line. There were K_DP and Z_DR columns on the front side of the storm. The Z_DR column exhibited a greater height compared to the K_DP column. The strong updraft zone was primarily composed of low-concentration liquid large particles, with a small amount of melted ice particles observed below the height of the −10 °C level within the Z_DR column. Above the height of 10 °C level, the Z_DR value was relatively small, mainly composed of graupel particles. Below the zone of the Z_DR high value behind the storms, there were liquid large particles and melted small hail particles. Above this height, the composition was mainly graupel or ice particles. (3) There is a certain difference in the amount of precipitation per minute, but the biggest difference is manifested in the duration of precipitation. Among them, due to the largest raindrop diameter of the squall line in Case A, Z_H and Z_DR were the largest, and the smallest Z_H and Z_DR were observed in Case C. In Case C, the precipitation exceeded 2 mm per minute. A comparison with the 1–2 mm/min range revealed that Z_DR and correlation coefficient (CC), remained essentially the same, but K_DP was larger. The high concentration of precipitation particles resulted in a significantly higher rainfall efficiency, leading to a greater intensity of precipitation per minute.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":15096,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics","volume":"266 ","pages":"Article 106404"},"PeriodicalIF":1.8,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143178376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}