History最新文献

{"title":"New Explorations in Early Modern Intelligence-Gathering: Introduction","authors":"DANNIELLE SHAW,&nbsp;MATTHEW WOODCOCK","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13364","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13364","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This introduction to ‘New Explorations in Early Modern Intelligence-Gathering’ provides a brief overview of some of the common currents and directions of scholarship on early modern espionage in order to provide a critical context for the essays comprising this special issue. It identifies the extent to which scholars have looked both at individual spies and the systems and secretariats within which they worked, and charts some of the significant emerging fields into which espionage studies is developing. The second part of the introduction then provides summaries of the essays by the seven contributing authors, drawing out how each, in different ways, explores questions concerning the motives, rewards, and occupational identity of those involved in espionage between the mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"190-201"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50119555","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Robert Barret and the Making of an Early Modern Occasional Spy","authors":"MATTHEW WOODCOCK","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13358","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13358","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This article examines letters written by the soldier-author Robert Barret in 1581 describing his travels in France and Italy, while a runaway apprentice during the 1570s, that led him to the English College in Rome. Barret's letters constitute a valuable, hitherto overlooked source of first-hand information about British and Irish Catholics in continental Europe, complementing better-known sources by Anthony Munday and Charles Sledd. Barret latterly recast his travels as an intelligence-gathering opportunity in which he collected detailed information both on Catholic exiles (including Thomas Stukeley, Bishop Thomas Goldwell, and Cardinal William Allen) and on putative plans to invade England. The letters provide an exemplary record of the – not uncommon – experiences of someone compelled by circumstances to adopt the role of an occasional spy. This article not only analyses the value of the letters’ contents but discusses broader questions concerning the pliable, shifting nature of early modern intelligence and intelligence-gatherers.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"224-243"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50119556","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Secretariat of Francis Walsingham, 1568–1590","authors":"HSUAN-YING TU","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13361","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13361","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Mid-Elizabethan rivalry over policy and patronage split the system of state information and espionage into the collaboration of individuals. To maintain the utmost privacy, Francis Walsingham, principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I, designed a comparatively enclosed information management and secretarial machinery that combined household space with clientage. This strategy facilitated the multiple infiltrations of clientage into the different levels of power politics, ranging from pan-European espionage to government administration and parliament. The political involvement of clientele hence constructed the late Tudor polity out of another amalgam of bureaucratic and household elements. Using the model of Walsingham's privatised, flexible and meritocratic secretariat, this essay will examine a new style of Tudor clientage and their capture of power within the mid-Elizabethan regime. In doing so, it explores the connection within and between clients, bureaucrats and the monarch, as well as a political controversy concerning the late Tudor polity.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"202-223"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50143209","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Confessional Intelligence: Early Modern Papal Diplomats and Information-Gathering Regarding England and Poland","authors":"CHARLES R. KEENAN","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13359","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13359","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This essay examines the information-gathering practices of papal nuncios and legates to argue that they performed much of the same intelligence work, and in a similar manner, as other diplomatic agents in the early modern Europe. It focuses in particular on papal diplomats’ efforts to gather information regarding two areas that proved especially challenging for the papacy – England and Poland-Lithuania – both of which were far from Rome and which contained large numbers of non-Catholics, who would understandably be wary of these diplomats’ intelligence work. The essay explores the mechanisms by which nuncios gathered information, including via ambassadors, members of religious orders, and informal networks of informants; their efforts to verify the information they received; and their methods to securely convey that information to their superiors in the Roman curia.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"282-302"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13359","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50141984","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From History-writing to (Hi)story-telling: Historical Novel, Alternate/Counterfactual History and Implicit Uchrony","authors":"ADRIANO VINALE","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13354","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13354","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The main aim of this article is to reconstruct the evolutions and the political implications of the Italian historical novel between the nineteenth and twenty-first centuries. The starting hypothesis is that the historical novel has always performed a vicarious function with respect to traditional historiography. In the Italian case, in particular, the canon of the historical novel has progressively lost the apologetic function it had during the Risorgimento, turning into an instrument of indirect criticism of Italian society after 1861. At the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the historical novel had a new editorial fortune, thanks to authors such as Umberto Eco, Valerio Evangelisti, Luther Blissett, Giancarlo De Cataldo, Giuseppe Genna, Tiziano Scarpa and Wu Ming, becoming a very fertile field of historical analysis on the transition from the First to the Second Republic. Finally, thanks to Antonio Scurati, the author of <i>M. Il figlio del secolo</i>, <i>M. L'uomo della provvidenza</i>, and <i>M. Gli ultimi giorni dell'Europa</i>, the historical-documentary-novel has become a perfect tool for a critical analysis of collective memory in Italy. The thesis of this article is that Scurati manages to rediscuss the ways and forms of the historical memory of fascism because he uses an innovative form of counterfactual narration: the implicit uchrony.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 382","pages":"407-420"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13354","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50153743","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"(Hi)story-Telling: An Introduction to Italian Alternate and Counterfactual History","authors":"Adriano Vinale","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13355","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13355","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;The dilemma of the history of the defeated is certainly not a novel topic for political and historical enquiry. The experience of the unspeakable forced the Auschwitz generation to question the meaning of historical memory. Walter Benjamin posed this question very early on, when he wrote in 1940 that ‘The only historian capable of fanning the spark of hope in the past is the one who is firmly convinced that &lt;i&gt;even the dead&lt;/i&gt; will not be safe from the enemy if he is victorious’.1 The nagging for the memory of the unspeakable obviously ran through the writings of Primo Levi, who immediately recognised the fallacy and falsifiability of memory, both personal and historical. ‘The memories which lie within us are not carved in stone; not only they tend to become erased as the years go by, but often they change, or even grow, by incorporating extraneous features.’2 Years before the Eichmann trial, Hannah Arendt also put the question of memory and its manipulability. In &lt;i&gt;The Origins of Totalitarianism&lt;/i&gt; (1951), she reflects on the relationship between narrative and politics in these terms: ‘The ideal subject of totalitarian rule – she argues – is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced Communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction […] and the distinction between true and false […] no longer exist’.3 Collective memory is hence a recurring question in the aftermath of the Second World War and in particular after the unaccountable experience of the concentration camp. The memory of the drowned is never safe, firstly because the &lt;i&gt;real&lt;/i&gt; witnesses of Auschwitz are the ones who did not survive it, and secondly because the memory of the past is always exposed to its posthumous falsification.4&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;When &lt;i&gt;Metahistory&lt;/i&gt; was published in 1973, the European historiographical debate had already been profoundly influenced by post-structuralism. As a matter of fact, in the preceding years, books such as Michel Foucault's &lt;i&gt;Le mots et les choses&lt;/i&gt; (1966), Jacques Derrida's &lt;i&gt;De la grammatologie&lt;/i&gt; (1967), or Gilles Deleuze's &lt;i&gt;Différence et répétition&lt;/i&gt; (1968) had powerfully occupied the public discussion in France and Europe. In those same years, Roland Barthes had published &lt;i&gt;Le discours de l'histoire&lt;/i&gt; (1967) and &lt;i&gt;L'effet du réel&lt;/i&gt; (1968), two essays destined to have a great echo in the reflection on historiographical methodology. It is perhaps superfluous to recall how the debate on the writing of history continued in the years following &lt;i&gt;Metahistory&lt;/i&gt;. Nonetheless, it seems important to point out that works such as Lynn Hunt's &lt;i&gt;The New Cultural History&lt;/i&gt; (1989) and Linda Hutcheon's &lt;i&gt;The Politics of Postmodernism&lt;/i&gt; (1989) show that the discussion on the writing of history has gone far beyond the seventies. The interplay hypothesised by White between history and fiction, between historiography and literature, has in some ways forced the historiography of the second half of the twentieth century i","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 382","pages":"355-364"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13355","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50153744","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"‘They Hide from Me, Like the Devil from the Cross’: Transalpine Postal Routes as Intelligence Work, 1555–1645","authors":"RACHEL MIDURA","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13362","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13362","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Tracing patterns of letter interception across the Alps provides a new geography of Habsburg communications, espionage, and counter-espionage in seventeenth-century Europe. Using the correspondence of the Tassis family of imperial and Spanish postmasters, this article demonstrates that despite increasingly martial rhetoric, battles in information security took place along different geography than the military campaigns of the Thirty Years War. Instead of the ‘Spanish Road’, the article proposes the consideration of two alternative roads debated by postal administrators: the ‘German Road’ through Augsburg and the ‘Swiss Road’ through Lucerne. Letter interceptions along these roads demonstrate that information security differed from martial security in two key ways: First, Habsburg postal systems relied upon international cooperation rather than territorial control. The desire to avoid information leaks had to be balanced with the financial necessity of contracting postal operations to Alpine towns such as Lindau. Second, postmasters themselves responded to the information security needs of cosmopolitan private patrons and multiple princes, complicating their allegiances as state agents. Cases such as the imperial Postmistress General of Brussels and Spanish postmaster of Milan demonstrate that postmasters served as both ‘honorable spies’ and spy-catchers, proposing new itineraries to circumvent espionage.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"303-327"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13362","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50141985","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Robert Harley as Secretary of State and his Intelligence Work: 1702–1708","authors":"ALAN MARSHALL","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13360","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13360","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This article seeks to reassess Robert Harley's role as Secretary of State (1704–10) and especially his work in the intelligence and espionage fields of his day. It examines not only his reputation in such affairs but his skills and techniques in early eighteenth-century espionage, and also his failures. It sets out the important administrative background of Harley's espionage work, and how he handled and processed secret material through his secretarial office. It also explores the cases of some of his secret agents, especially that of the notorious William Greg, who was later exposed as an agent of the French government and cost Harley not only his reputation for astuteness, but his post as Secretary of State. Above all, however, Harley's secretaryship of state shows how by the early eighteenth-century, espionage had become an essential part of the routine of the early modern state.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 381","pages":"328-352"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13360","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50141986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"‘Missed Revolutions’: Historical Narratives During Italian Fascism (from Delio Cantimori to Camillo Pellizzi)","authors":"PATRICIA CHIANTERA-STUTTE","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13357","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13357","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This article analyses some examples of historical narratives that, long before the emergence of so-called postmodern history, had a specific narrative character: the reconstructions of ‘missed revolutions’ taking into account a possible alternative history and tracing back the reasons for a social, political, and economic crisis to an interrupted process, one that, had it been completed, would have triggered some sort of progress. Even if this kind of historical representation cannot properly be classified as a form of alternate history, it can be placed between traditional historical accounts of the past and a more innovative pattern, which entails a more speculative argumentation, and therefore has been used to justify or suggest specific political claims. One of the most obvious examples of this literature are the narrations of the ‘unaccomplished Risorgimento’, which was a highly debated theme in the political, intellectual, and historical discussion from the period of the Italian unification until the economic and political reconstruction following the Second World War. This article will stress four possible functions of the ‘missed revolution’ narratives: first, as a way to discover some currents that have been underestimated by the official historiography or mainstream political discourse; second, to observe the role assigned to particular events in altering the destiny of a nation; third, to show how political and intellectual actors use history to justify political actions or events; and finally, to reveal how, conversely, by reconstructing ‘missed revolutions’ individual historians and, more generally, public intellectuals can take up a specific political stance while writing history.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 382","pages":"365-387"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13357","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50153387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Detecting Nineteen Eighty-Four in Italian Alternate History and Future/Past Narratives (1948–1984)","authors":"ANGELO ARCIERO","doi":"10.1111/1468-229X.13356","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-229X.13356","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Due to its structural complexity, <i>Nineteen Eighty-Four</i> poses itself as a real watershed within dystopian literature, involving a vision of history conceived as a discontinuous and non-linear progress. By such a token – and because of its enduring ability to spread to other cultural contexts – the representation of totalitarianism in Orwell's last novel is translated into a narrative structure with implicit uchronic components, exerting its impact also in the field of alternate history. This article aims to examine the various reverberations of <i>Nineteen Eighty-Four</i>, focusing on the Italian panorama and, in particular, on the unfinished novel by Corrado Alvaro (<i>Belmoro</i>), the uchronies of Guido Morselli (<i>Roma senza papa</i> and <i>Contro-passato prossimo</i>), and the short story by Luigi Malerba <i>4891</i>. Ranging from the 1950s to the early 1980s, Alvaro, Morselli, and Malerba's works, through the combined devices of dystopia and alternate history, offer a critical picture of the transformations of Italian society in those years.</p>","PeriodicalId":13162,"journal":{"name":"History","volume":"108 382","pages":"388-406"},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50153388","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}