Energy Conversion and Management最新文献

{"title":"Transient transport phenomena in lithium-rich solar evaporation ponds: A case study in the Atacama Salt Flat, Chile","authors":"Nicolás Rodríguez-Córdova ,&nbsp;Cristóbal Sarmiento-Laurel ,&nbsp;Humberto Estay ,&nbsp;Masoud Behzad","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119873","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119873","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Lithium extraction from brines plays a key role in the global transition toward sustainable energy systems, yet the transient thermophysical behavior of lithium-rich solar evaporation ponds (LiSEPs) under real environmental conditions remains unexplored. This study presents a computational framework developed in OpenFOAM to analyze the transient transport of mass, energy, and momentum in a LiSEP located in the Atacama Salt Flat, Chile. The model incorporates variable boundary conditions to evaluate mass and energy exchanges with the environment, accounting for evaporative cooling and radiative heat transfer. The results reveal diurnal patterns with shifts in exchange direction between the environment and the LiSEP. Over eight days, cumulative water evaporation reached 143.24 kg/m², with salinity increasing from 25% to 29.04%. Cloudy days reduced solar radiation by 54.56%, halving evaporation rates and salinity growth compared to sunny days. Seasonal analysis showed that summer evaporation rates were 2.30 times higher than winter rates due to increased solar radiation. These findings highlight the importance of accounting for environmental variability in optimizing the development of LiSEPs under diverse climatic conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"340 ","pages":"Article 119873"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144114839","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study and parameter optimization of desiccant wheel-assisted atmospheric water harvesting system based on NSGA-II","authors":"Fanzhao Kong ,&nbsp;Zhongbao Liu ,&nbsp;Chenghu Lin ,&nbsp;Zepeng Wang ,&nbsp;Wei Wang ,&nbsp;Shuyi Yao ,&nbsp;Wei Zhang ,&nbsp;Junxiong Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119943","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119943","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The desiccant wheel-assisted atmospheric water harvesting system (DW-AWHS) effectively mitigates the performance degradation of a heat pump-based atmospheric water harvesting system (HP-AWHS) in arid desert climates by elevating the air dew point temperature. Comparative multi-environmental performance experiments between the HP-AWHS and DW-AWHS revealed that the DW-AWHS exhibits reduced susceptibility to environmental fluctuations. The water harvesting rate (WHR) and dew point temperature rise (ΔT_DP) are the core metrics for evaluating the DW-AWHS performance. However, an inherent trade-off exists between these two objectives during system optimization. This study proposes a hybrid optimization framework integrating response surface methodology (RSM) and the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II) to resolve this multi-objective optimization challenge. First, four critical design variables were identified: treated air fan speed (n_tr), regeneration air fan speed (n_re), condensation temperature (T_co), and regeneration power (W_he). A Box-Behnken experimental design was implemented to construct regression models. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) validated the adequacy and reliability of the regression models. Response surface analysis elucidated the interactive effects between paired design parameters. Subsequently, the Pareto optimal frontier was derived using NSGA-II. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that WHR is predominantly influenced in the order W_he &gt; T_co &gt; n_re &gt; n_tr, while ΔT_DP is governed by T_co &gt; W_he &gt; n_re &gt; n_tr. Under optimized conditions (20 °C, 40 % RH), the system achieved a WHR of 0.2164 kg/h and a ΔT_DP of 23.72 °C, corresponding to operational parameters of n_tr = 3.43 krpm, n_re = 2.99 krpm, T_co = 17.89 °C, and W_he = 0.993 kW. Experimental validation confirmed the prediction accuracy, with deviations between simulated and measured results below 3 %, thereby substantiating the robustness of the proposed methodology.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119943"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144116202","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hybrid hydrogen energy storage system assisted by cold storage Rankine Carnot battery for power and heat production: Performance assessment and multi-objective artificial hummingbird optimization algorithm","authors":"Fateme Norooziyan ,&nbsp;Arshiya Noorpoor ,&nbsp;Fateme Ahmadi Boyaghchi","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119976","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119976","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Energy storage is an effective solution for solving grid volatility of renewable electricity. The hydrogen energy storage (HES) system is a promising energy storage technology due to the high energy density of hydrogen as an energy storage medium. In this work, a new HES system, including the proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (PEME), the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), and the waste heat recovery supercritical CO₂ recompression cycle (SRC) is proposed to produce power and heat load without CO₂ emission. To enhance the roundtrip efficiency of the HES system, a cold energy storage Rankine Carnot battery (CSRCB) based on a vapor compression refrigeration cycle (VCR) and transcritical CO₂ regenerative Rankine cycle (TRC) is introduced to integrate the sub-ambient temperature with SRC and SOFC waste heat. The system’s performance is studied using thermodynamic and economic methods, and the effect of employing CSRCB on the roundtrip efficiency is assessed by defining a new improvement percent (IP) index. A comprehensive parametric assessment and multi-objective artificial hummingbird optimization algorithm (MOAHA) are conducted to find the maximum roundtrip efficiency and discharge power with a minimum product cost rate. According to the results, employing CSRCB enhances the roundtrip efficiency of the HES system by 74.36 % with a 30.38 % increment relative to the base point. In this case, the discharged exergy efficiency increases by 89.88 %, and the economic indicators of product cost rate, levelized cost of storage (LCOS), and payback period (PP) decline to the minimum values of 89.03 $/s, 0.2544 $/kWh and 4.47 years, respectively, with 3.65 M$ net present value (NPV).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119976"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144123623","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comprehensive experimental analysis on combustion characteristics of acetone-butanol-ethanol fuel in a constant volume combustion chamber under gasoline direct injection conditions: Effect of fuel composition","authors":"Mohamed Nour ,&nbsp;Weixuan Zhang ,&nbsp;Mingli Cui ,&nbsp;Jinhong Fu ,&nbsp;Xulin Luo ,&nbsp;Shuyi Qiu ,&nbsp;Xuesong Li ,&nbsp;Min Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119948","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119948","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol (ABE) is considered a potential alternative to gasoline, contributing to the decarbonization of the global transportation sector. Nonetheless, the elevated viscosity and latent heat of vaporization of butanol and ethanol present vaporization challenges in cold temperatures. This research investigates the influence of ABE composition on spray characteristics, combustion, emissions, and soot structure under simulated gasoline direct injection (GDI) cold start conditions. The study evaluates three ABE compositions: 30 %:60 %:10 % (ABE361), 10 %:60 %:30 % (ABE163), and 60 %:30 %:10 % (ABE631) by volume. Each ABE mixture is blended with gasoline in a 50–50 % volume ratio. Experiments were conducted in a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) equipped with an optical window, under conditions of 1.25 equivalence ratio, 15 MPa injection pressure, 30 °C ambient temperature, and quiescent air. A high-speed, color-imaging camera was utilized to capture progression of spray and flame. The quantification of combustion products was conducted using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was employed to scrutinize the microstructural characteristics of soot particles. The results indicated that all ABE blends at cold start condition vaporized at 11 °C lower than gasoline. Flame speeds for ABE163, ABE361 and ABE631 decreased by 59 %, 26 % and 57 %, respectively. The spray angle and penetration of ABE blends decreased by a maximum of 4 %. The peak pressure and peak heat release rate of ABE blends decreased by 13.4 % and 27.3 %, respectively. Compared with gasoline, the unsaturated HC, aromatics, CO/CO₂, and soot particle diameters found in ABE blends were reduced by 31 %, 60 %, 15 % and 43 %, respectively. However, the emissions of aldehydes and saturated HC increased by 61.8 % and 41 %, respectively. Therefore, to achieve the same performance as gasoline under cold start condition, ABE requires a unique injection strategy while maintaining low emissions levels.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119948"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144123624","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coordinated load management of building clusters and electric vehicles charging: An economic model predictive control investigation in demand response","authors":"Andrea Petrucci ,&nbsp;Charalampos Vallianos ,&nbsp;Annamaria Buonomano ,&nbsp;Benoit Delcroix ,&nbsp;Andreas Athienitis","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119965","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119965","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper introduces a probabilistic load coordination approach to optimize the combined management of home-charged electric vehicles and space heating demand. Reduced-order resistance–capacitance models are applied for building thermal simulations, while support vector machine models predict baseline electric loads. Monte Carlo simulations are used to estimate arrival times and remaining charge of electric vehicles, assessing the advantages of Level 1 and Level 2 infrastructure for one-way and two-way residential charging stations. The Individual Stress Level, a novel metric for supervisor coordination within an economic model predictive control framework, is introduced. The methodology is tested on ten homes managed by an energy aggregator in Québec, Canada. Results show monodirectional electric vehicle charging not disrupting grid stability under static-price tariffs. However, time-of-use pricing structures increase average demand by 19–29% and peak capacity by 3–18%. Bidirectional scenarios indicate a 15.5% increase in maximum demand and a 17.5% rise in normal capacity. The combined building energy flexibility index indicates reductions of 74–140% for morning events and 54–98% for evening events. A sensitivity analysis highlights the role of demand charges in the Individual Stress Level activation, showing reduced price sensitivity for monodirectional setups compared to bidirectional configurations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119965"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144106943","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Data imputation methods for intermittent renewable energy sources: Implications for energy system modeling","authors":"Claudio Mantuano ,&nbsp;Olalekan Omoyele ,&nbsp;Maximilian Hoffmann ,&nbsp;Jann Michael Weinand ,&nbsp;Massimo Panella ,&nbsp;Detlef Stolten","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119857","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119857","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To incorporate a high share of intermittent renewable sources in energy systems, energy system optimization models rely on weather and climate time series data. However, data for renewable energy sources often contains missing values due to sensor or transmission faults. This study evaluates various data imputation methods for minutely-resolved global horizontal irradiance, direct normal irradiance, and wind speed time series, with missingness ranging from two to ninety percent. Alongside standard statistical tests, a novel validation criterion is introduced by directly evaluating the impact of imputation methods on energy system modeling. While certain imputation methods demonstrate strong point-wise statistical accuracy, they do not necessarily preserve the underlying data distribution. The performance of these methods is strongly influenced by the type of time series and the missingness mechanism, either continuous gaps or randomly missing data points. In energy system optimization, multiple imputation by chained equations, <span><math><mi>k</mi></math></span>-nearest neighbors, linear interpolation, and simple moving average yield the best results, outperforming more sophisticated deep learning-based methods. Overall, <span><math><mi>k</mi></math></span>-nearest neighbors consistently outperformed the other approaches across all validation criteria. By comprehensively evaluating the statistical performance of imputation methods and their impact on energy system modeling, this study offers valuable insights for researchers and practitioners addressing missing data in energy system applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119857"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144107037","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The design and verification of the performance of the multiphase pump as a replacement for centrifugal pumps in high gas-content fluid transport","authors":"Xiaojun Li,&nbsp;Dong Dong,&nbsp;Yanpi Lin,&nbsp;Xin Li,&nbsp;Zhenwei Li","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119936","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119936","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Centrifugal pumps are prone to performance breakdown when transporting mixtures with an inlet gas volume fraction (IGVF) exceeding 10%. This is mainly due to the limitations of radial impeller structure, cavitation induced and head loss under high IGVF. To address this, a new design for multiphase pumps is proposed to replace single-stage centrifugal pumps for high gas-content fluid transport, focusing on the blade blocking impacts and momentum distribution adjustments. A high-precision experimental system is constructed, maintaining a bubbly inflow, to evaluate the pump’s performance under diverse IGVFs, liquid-phase flow rates (<em>Q_l</em>) and rotational speeds (<em>n</em>), complemented by high-speed photography to observe the transitions in inlet flow patterns from bubbly flow Ⅰ to bubbly flow Ⅳ. These observations provide insights into how flow patterns effect both pump performance and flow regime within the impeller. Experimental results show that the pump exhibits strong robustness under all tested conditions and can effectively transport mixtures up to 55% IGVF. However, it is observed that gas injection degrades both the <em>Q_l</em> and head coefficient (<em>ψ</em>), with the latter degrading more rapidly. Meanwhile, the performance curve transitions into a three-stage variation, and the benefits of increased <em>n</em> diminish with higher IGVF. Inlet flow patterns progress through four types. Bubbly flow I causes relatively small performance losses, whereas bubbly flow II involves bubble aggregation into bands around the impeller head, marking the onset of performance loss. Bubbly flow III results in the formation of large gas clusters, gradually leading to more severe performance loss. Bubbly flow IV minimizes the performance loss rate through a stable phase interface. Adjusting <em>Q_l</em> or <em>n</em> can reduce bubble accumulation within the impeller and suppress mist-like mixed flow reverse motion. These adjustments delay inlet flow pattern transitions, effectively preserving pump performance under high IGVF conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119936"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144116059","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Global climate change impacts onshore wind resource complementarity and temporal variability","authors":"Christopher Jung,&nbsp;Leon Sander,&nbsp;Dirk Schindler","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119963","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119963","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate change leads to spatiotemporal shifts in the global distribution of wind resources. Many studies anticipate declining mean wind speed in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, while predicting increases in mean wind speed in the tropics. However, average wind resource conditions represent only one aspect of the meteorological wind potential. The dynamics of temporal variability and spatial wind resource complementarity under climate change remain less well understood. Thus, this study aims to investigate the impact of climate change on the temporal variability of wind resources and the potential for complementary wind resource utilization. Time series of capacity factors were calculated for a global dataset of wind farm sites using an ensemble of 18 global climate models and statistical downscaling methods. The coefficient of variation was employed to assess temporal variability, while Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to evaluate complementarity. The results indicate that spatial complementarity of wind resources is rare in the historical period 1989–2014. In many regions of the Northern Hemisphere the temporal variability of wind resources is increasing in the future period until 2099, while the potential for complementary wind resource utilization remains low. In China and the USA, the median of the ensemble of climate models projects a significant increase in the coefficient of variation of almost 10 % by the end of the 21st century compared to the historical period under high radiative forcing. When combined with declining average wind resources and low potential for spatial complementarity, this creates deteriorating meteorological conditions for wind energy deployment. In contrast, conditions for wind energy expansion are improving in Brazil, as average capacity factors are increasing and the coefficient of variation is declining. The findings of this study should be considered when integrating wind energy into the power system, as they are critical for energy transformation and especially for balancing electricity supply and demand.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119963"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144116199","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study of CO2/H2O mixture with various compositions based on CO2 dynamic cycle test bench","authors":"Xuan Wang ,&nbsp;Kuanyun Peng ,&nbsp;Guozhi Du ,&nbsp;Hua Tian ,&nbsp;Gequn Shu","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119971","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119971","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Allam cycle is an oxyfuel combustion cycle with nearly 100% carbon capture efficiency and high net power generation efficiency. However, current studies mainly focus on the thermodynamic analysis of the cycle, and there is a lack of experimental research on the effect of the working fluid composition on the performance of the components and the overall cycle output. This study aims to experimentally investigate the effect of CO₂/H₂O mixtures on system performance and heat exchanger efficiency. By comparing the heat transfer performance of the regenerator and the cooler, it was found that the heat transfer coefficient of the cooler gradually decreases with increasing water content, while that of the regenerator gradually increases. The heat transfer coefficients of both are higher than that of pure CO₂, leading to improved heat transfer performance. In this setup, an expansion valve is used instead of a turbine. It was found that increasing water content has little effect on the flow characteristics of the expansion valve but significantly reduces the compressor power consumption. The experiment identifies and explains the temperature fluctuations in the electric heater caused by phase changes of the mixture in the subcritical region. To ensure experimental safety, operating conditions within this region should be avoided. The results of this study provide valuable insights for system optimization, heat exchanger design, and component performance prediction in CO₂/H₂O mixture cycles.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119971"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144107040","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reliability and economic impacts of utilizing battery energy storage in data centers for energy flexibility services in smart grids","authors":"Yang Yu ,&nbsp;Kui Shan ,&nbsp;Hong Tang ,&nbsp;Shengwei Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119951","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119951","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>There are increasing interests in engaging data centers to provide energy flexibility services in power grids, due to their enormous energy consumption and storage capacities. However, two fundamental questions should be addressed urgently before wide applications, but not yet addressed sufficiently: what are the impacts of such engagement on the operational reliability and economics of data centers, and to what extent the energy storage can be utilized? This study, therefore, developed a systematic approach for assessing the reliability and economic impacts of utilizing battery energy storage in data centers. The impacts are assessed comprehensively for different tiers of data centers for providing typical grid services under different grid scenarios, considering the difference between reliability-based standards and system-based design standards for the first time, while making the reliability assessment of data centers more meaningful in engineering practice. Monte Carlo simulation is adopted to determine the stochastic battery backup time of data centers. Revenue models are developed to assess the economic benefits of engaging data centers for four typical energy flexibility services. A data center in Hong Kong is selected to perform the impact assessment. It is found that the data centers with the backup system designed using a system-based design standard can provide energy flexibility services effectively while satisfying the reliability-based standards. The economic benefit is found to be very significant, e.g. daily avenue up to USD$0.58 per kVA load, which is affected significantly by the services provided, power grid reliability and tier of data center.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"339 ","pages":"Article 119951"},"PeriodicalIF":9.9,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144107038","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}