Energy Conversion and Management最新文献

{"title":"The influence of electrolytic hydrogen provision degree in the process integrated with biomass gasification, power-to-gas and biomethanation: A techno-economic assessment","authors":"Bingyi Jiang, Zhenwen Zhang, Xinkai Su, Chengdong Ying, Xirong Huang, Cuina Qin, Mengxiang Jiang, Chunjiang Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120614","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120614","url":null,"abstract":"The syngas produced from biomass gasification is a great potential energy resource, which can well be utilized to produce biomethane via syngas biomethanation. Integrated with power-to-gas, it can be a promising technology to provide long term energy storage and increase the flexibility of electricity production. This study first established a novel model of the process integrated with biomass gasification, power-to-gas and biomethanation and considered the recovery of heat and by-products. Then, the techno-economic performance of five scenarios was assessed where different amounts of electrolytic hydrogen were provided to achieve the residual carbon conversion proportion of 0, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % and 100 %, respectively. With the increase of hydrogen provision, the biomethane yield rises linearly from 219.94 Nm<ce:sup loc=\"post\">3</ce:sup> t<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−1</ce:sup> to 442.46 Nm<ce:sup loc=\"post\">3</ce:sup> t<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−1</ce:sup>, and the cold gas efficiency rises from 39.64 % to 44.94 %. The expansion of electrolysis scale also increases the total capital investment from 127.37 MCNY to 203.49 MCNY, and the operating costs from 25.62 MCNY year<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−1</ce:sup> to 43.21 MCNY year<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−1</ce:sup>. The purchased equipment cost proportion of the electrolysis section has finally increased to 31.95 %. However, power-to-gas reduces the biomethane minimum selling price from 12.54 CNY Nm<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−3</ce:sup> to 10.35 CNY Nm<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−3</ce:sup>. That means the costs of implementing electrolysis are compensated by the higher biomethane productivity obtained when the power-to-gas electricity price is below 0.39 CNY kWh<ce:sup loc=\"post\">−1</ce:sup>. According to the sensitivity analysis, the market competitiveness of biomethane can be further enhanced by reducing costs of investment and raw materials, as well as receiving policy subsidies.","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"54 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":10.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145228958","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental and numerical study of thermophysical properties of carnauba wax nanocomposites with two-dimensional nanoparticles for sustainable thermal energy storage","authors":"Abdullah Aziz ,&nbsp;Shoaib Anwer ,&nbsp;Eiyad Abu-Nada ,&nbsp;Anas Alazzam","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120594","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120594","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The increasing demand for sustainable energy storage has intensified the development of phase change materials with improved thermal performance and environmental compatibility. Petroleum-based phase change materials, such as paraffin wax, provide high efficiency but are non-biodegradable, necessitating bio-based alternatives such as carnauba wax. This study introduced nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials by dispersing two-dimensional nanoparticles like reduced graphene oxide, graphene oxide, and Ti₃C₂T_x MXene into carnauba and paraffin wax matrices to improve thermal and rheological behavior. Nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials were synthesized with nanoparticle loadings of 0.1–0.5 wt% and characterized using X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, viscosity measurements, and thermal conductivity analysis, while predictive models were developed using machine learning and validated through computational fluid dynamics simulations. Thermal conductivity enhancements reached 20.4% in carnauba-based composites and 19.6% in paraffin-based composites, while latent heat reductions were limited to 13.3% and 9.3%, respectively. Machine learning models reproduced experimental results with 96.7% accuracy, and numerical simulations confirmed convective heat transfer improvements of up to 19.98%. These findings establish carnauba-based nanoparticle-enhanced phase change materials as sustainable alternatives to paraffin-based systems, combining biodegradability with competitive thermophysical performance for next-generation energy and cooling applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"348 ","pages":"Article 120594"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145219056","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Boosting PV/T system performance with hybrid ZnO–water nanofluid cooling and passive airflow: a practical insight into the role of nanoparticle concentration","authors":"Ehab M. Almetwally, Abdelkrim Khelifa, Mohammed El Hadi Attia, Abd Elnaby Kabeel, Moataz M. Abdel-Aziz","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120595","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120595","url":null,"abstract":"This study numerically investigates the performance enhancement of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) system using ZnO-water nanofluid (0.1-0.5 % volume concentration) circulated at a constant flow rate of 0.0025 kg/s, combined with natural air convection. A comprehensive 3D steady-state model was developed employing the finite volume method, incorporating the standard k-ε turbulence model and Boussinesq approximation for buoyancy effects. The system features an innovative design with 16 triangular-profile cooling tubes beneath the PV panel to maximize heat transfer efficiency. Numerical simulations solved the governing equations for mass, momentum, and energy conservation under realistic Algerian climatic conditions, with validation against experimental data showing excellent agreement. Results demonstrate that increasing nanoparticle concentration significantly improves system performance, with the 0.5 % nanofluid achieving maximum electrical (15.56 %) and total thermal (75.60 %) efficiencies, representing improvements of 4.2 and 42.3 % respectively over conventional water cooling. The constant-flow nanofluid circulation maintained stable cooling performance while enhancing thermal energy recovery, with outlet temperatures increasing by 3.77 K at peak irradiance. This study provides critical insights into optimizing bi-fluid PV/T systems through nanofluid concentration control at fixed flow conditions, offering a practical solution for simultaneous electricity generation and thermal energy harvesting in solar applications.","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"40 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":10.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145228960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High-power THGM energy as a sustainable, continuous, and large-scale energy transition in Mexico: Hot dry rock","authors":"E. Teófilo-Salvador ,&nbsp;J.A. Montemayor-Aldrete ,&nbsp;R.G. Camacho-Velázquez ,&nbsp;A.P. Gómora-Figueroa","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120611","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120611","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate dynamics, irregularity, and energy intermittency have forced a shift toward Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) with Hot Dry Rock (HDR). This global approach may be an energy option for Mexico, recognizing them as highly complex nonlinear systems. Similarities and differences, conceptual models, techniques, and development-operation processes were identified. A coupled conceptual model was generated. Seismicity has been a limiting factor for hydraulic fracturing, and temperature affects the exploration, design, profitability, and construction of geothermal plants. Fracture connections influence design, energy estimates, fluid flow losses, and heat transfer efficiency. Reusing hydrocarbon wells can reduce costs by providing geological, geomechanical, geothermal, geophysical, geohydraulic, and geochemical data. The HDR-EGS is a coupled, highly complex, nonlinear thermo-hydro-geomechanical-chemical (THGMC) system, yet it is continuous, adaptable, non-polluting, and sustainable at large scales.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"348 ","pages":"Article 120611"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145219055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of a polygeneration system for district heating and cooling using biogas from wastewater treatment plants","authors":"Alberto Picardo, Estela Peralta, Víctor Manuel Soltero, Carlos Ortiz, Ricardo Chacartegui","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120615","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120615","url":null,"abstract":"Biogas, as a product of anaerobic biodegradation processes of organic matter, has significant potential to be integrated into district heating networks to improve their efficiency. Wastewater treatment plants can be transformed into dual-purpose centres for sustainable resource generation and pollution reduction while also providing sludge management. This work investigates the role of biogas generated in wastewater treatment plants in fulfilling the demand requirements for heating, cooling, and domestic hot water in urban areas with district heating and cooling systems. The analysis estimates available biogas potential, evaluates total thermal energy demand, selects equipment for a polygeneration plant, and conducts techno-economic optimisation. Three urban locations in southern Europe with different climatic conditions were selected as case studies to establish energy demand profiles. Specific configurations were proposed for each plant, aiming to meet local thermal energy demands with an optimised cost. With overall efficiencies and equivalent electric efficiencies in the plants of up to 84 % and 79 %, respectively, integrating biogas into the proposed polygeneration systems as a support for primary energy achieves a reduction in primary energy consumption by 21 % to 39 % of total demand and economic savings from 40 % to 50 % of annual cost. It shows the interest and the technical and economic feasibility of partially replacing natural gas with biogas, supporting system decarbonisation and contributing to long-term climate neutrality goals.","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"77 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":10.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145228959","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dynamic modeling, approximate solution, and performance analysis of an umbrella-shaped in-situ wave energy converter with a compact nonlinear stiffness mechanism","authors":"Hao Huang ,&nbsp;Siyuan Jiang ,&nbsp;Bingbing Wang ,&nbsp;Yunfei Lu ,&nbsp;Xianchao Zhao ,&nbsp;Weixing Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120587","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120587","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The lack of continuous energy supply is a key challenge limiting the application of ocean robots in long-endurance and high-load observation operations. Capturing wave energy for power generation is an innovative approach to extend the endurance of ocean robots. This paper proposes a simple and compact nonlinear stiffness mechanism (NSM) to improve the energy capture efficiency of the umbrella-shaped in-situ wave energy converter (UIWEC). A nonlinear time-domain dynamic model with multi-degree-of-freedom coupling is established, and a frequency-domain approximate solution method for the motion response is proposed. Through the analysis of static characteristics and dynamic responses, the influence rules of NSM parameters on UIWEC are revealed. The numerical results show that the reasonable selection of NSM parameters can significantly improve the capture efficiency of UIWEC under irregular wave excitation. Under the common wave conditions in the South China Sea (<span><math><mrow><msub><mi>T</mi><mi>p</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>5</mn><mi>s</mi><mo>,</mo><msub><mi>H</mi><mi>s</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>1</mn><mi>m</mi></mrow></math></span>), the theoretical average wave energy capture power of the nonlinear stiffness UIWEC is 29.13 W, which is increased by 40.3 % compared with the linear stiffness UIWEC. This study provides a feasible solution for improving the efficiency of small-scale in-situ wave energy converter and it is expected to address the energy supply challenges faced by ocean robots during their long-term operation in the deep and open sea.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 120587"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145217716","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Clustering direct air capture and low-temperature waste heat sources to optimise the United Kingdom’s future energy system","authors":"Alex Middleton ,&nbsp;Kelly Cooper ,&nbsp;Stephen M. Smith ,&nbsp;Budimir Rosic","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120588","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120588","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage extracts carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and enables long-term sequestration. As an innovative Carbon Dioxide Removal method, Direct Air Capture is essential to achieving net-zero per the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, it is highly energy-intensive compared to alternative carbon removal methods, posing challenges for global decarbonisation and energy demand. Limited energy system integration analysis exists for Direct Air Capture, which is crucial to ensure efficient resource allocation in an already-constrained system. This energy intensive technology requires power, heat, and carbon dioxide storage, and the availabilities of such resources in the transforming energy system are limited. In this study, we analyse energy availability for Direct Air Capture in a low-carbon future energy system. We hypothesise that by clustering Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage installations with low-temperature waste heat from industrial and nuclear power sources, system losses are reduced, minimising energy demand and operational expenses versus a fully electrified solution. This research bridges the gap between development and implementation of waste heat Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage by calculating available low-temperature waste heat and applying spatial resource analysis of waste-heat clusters and transport to geological carbon storage sites, based on a United Kingdom case study. The study finds sufficient energy resources to meet Direct Air Capture requirements, even in an energy system less reliant on thermal plants. This approach facilitates a 7–13% cost reduction versus the reference case, with positive cost advantages maintained even under a 60% increase in waste heat input costs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 120588"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145217663","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Real-Time coordination of electrical and thermal energy in power-to-hydrogen by electrolysis plant","authors":"Zhiyao Zhong ,&nbsp;Jiakun Fang ,&nbsp;Kewei Hu ,&nbsp;Hao Li ,&nbsp;Danji Huang ,&nbsp;Xiaomeng Ai ,&nbsp;Jinyu Wen ,&nbsp;Shijie Cheng","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120580","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120580","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper proposes a real-time coordination strategy for an industrial power-to-hydrogen by electrolysis (PtHE) plant under fluctuating renewable energy sources (RES). In this plant, an optimal coupling between electrical and thermal energy can improve the performance of the water electrolysis reaction. To maximize hydrogen production under power fluctuations, an optimization model considering the electrical-thermal coupling is first established, where the piecewise linear approximation is applied to transform nonlinear relationships in the PtHE plant into constraints in the form of mixed integer linear programming (MILP). Then, a real-time operation strategy of the PtHE plant is proposed to coordinate electrical and thermal energy for efficient conversion, where model predictive control (MPC) is adapted to determine the allocation of fluctuating power in real-time by solving the MILP optimization problem. Besides, a power hardware-in-loop (PHIL) platform is built to implement the proposed strategy, which includes an industrial alkaline PtHE plant and a real-time simulator. Through the experiment, the control execution of this platform is validated, and the parameters of the alkaline PtHE model are obtained. This strategy is applied to the PtHE plant in the PHIL platform and compared with the myopic policy to demonstrate the advantage: the total hydrogen production increases by 9% with no power curtailment of RES by the temperature management in advance using MPC. Further, a simulation on a high-capacity PtHE plant, up to MW scale, shows a 5% improvement in the total hydrogen production under the proposed strategy, compared with a commercial solution using programmable logic control (PLC). Results confirm that exploiting the electrical-thermal flexibility significantly enhances the energy conversion under varying conditions brought by RES, offering a practical route to promote green hydrogen production in industrial applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 120580"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145218024","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A photovoltaic-powered rapid-cycling sorption system for sustainable off-grid atmospheric water harvesting","authors":"Fen Jiang ,&nbsp;Qiongfen Yu ,&nbsp;Ming Li ,&nbsp;Zhijin Wang ,&nbsp;Lei Shu ,&nbsp;Shengnan Sun ,&nbsp;Danya Zhan ,&nbsp;Zhongfan Mo ,&nbsp;Zhihao Song ,&nbsp;Runfang Ma ,&nbsp;Meidi Ding ,&nbsp;Hui Yao","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120576","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120576","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sorption-based atmospheric water harvesting (SAWH) technology exhibits great potential for strong environmental adaptability and flexible deployment. However, current systems commonly rely on grid electricity or intermittent solar thermal sources, which makes continuous and stable operation difficult and limits application reliability and scalability. Herein, an innovative photovoltaic (PV) powered rapid-cycling SAWH system was proposed for sustainable off-grid water harvesting. Activated carbon fiber felt (ACFF) acted as both an adsorbent and a resistor. In-situ electric swing adsorption (ESA) technology was employed to enable the adsorbed ACFF to undergo rapid Joule heating and desorption. The SAWH system achieved four daily cycles with a single sorption bed by optimizing the adsorption–desorption strategy. Experimental results showed that under 15 °C and 70 % relative humidity, the fan-assisted water cooling condensation mode was utilized to achieve a daily water production (DWP) of 0.96 kg_water/kg_ACFF/day with a low specific energy consumption (SEC) of 2.59 kW·h/kg_water. Even in the arid climate of Kunming during January, an equal-time adsorption mode (4.5 h × 4) was adopted to maintain a DWP of 0.50 kg_water/kg_ACFF/day with a SEC of 4.86 kW·h/kg_water. A six-day outdoor water collection test demonstrated that the PV panels consistently supplied sufficient energy to meet the SAWH system’s demand, with an energy conversion efficiency above 15 %. This stable power supply enabled continuous freshwater production under varying weather conditions, including sunny, cloudy, overcast, and nighttime days. The results validated the feasibility and practicality of this study as a green and sustainable solution for clean water harvesting.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 120576"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145218023","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Climate-driven resource, cost and resilience assessment of ocean thermal energy conversion systems","authors":"Aminath Saadha ,&nbsp;Keiichi N. Ishihara ,&nbsp;Takaya Ogawa ,&nbsp;Hideyuki Okumura","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120599","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120599","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Ocean thermal energy conversion is a renewable energy technology that utilizes the temperature gradient in the ocean to generate electricity. Climate change affects these plants in two opposing and counter intuitive ways: rising sea temperatures enhance the thermal gradient and increase resource potential, while intensifying extreme weather events undermine plant reliability and intensifying design requirements. Most existing studies assess resource potential using historical climatology and emphasize high-emission futures, overlooking how evolving climate reshapes long-term feasibility, costs, and resilience. This study addresses these gaps employing Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 scenarios to evaluate (i) global and small island specific resource potential, (ii) the translation of these resources into levelized cost of electricity for 10 MW offshore and onshore plants under three cost trajectories, and (iii) the structural reinforcements required to withstand stronger hurricanes. A lifetime present cost framework and a benefit cost ratio are applied, incorporating hurricane probabilities and salvage factors. Results indicate that resource viability grows under high emissions, reaching 1.3 × 10⁶ TW globally, while under the green pathway potential remains stable at 0.85 × 10⁶ TW. Levelized costs range from 0.09 to 0.14 USD/kWh in high emissions and 0.10–0.15 USD/kWh in the green pathway. Structural hardening increases costs by 9–36 % for offshore and 5–16 % for onshore designs. Benefit–cost tests suggest resilience upgrades are justified only to Category 2 levels in high-hazard sites, with limited economic value in low-risk regions. Ultimately, exceedance probability and baseline capital costs dominate life-cycle economics, constraining further reinforcement gains.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11664,"journal":{"name":"Energy Conversion and Management","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 120599"},"PeriodicalIF":10.9,"publicationDate":"2025-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145217665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}