Energy最新文献

{"title":"Trade-off between propulsive performance and structural integrity in a scramjet under fluid–thermal–structural interaction","authors":"Zhenyu Hu ,&nbsp;Zhan Gao ,&nbsp;Chenglong Wang ,&nbsp;Mingbo Sun ,&nbsp;Yongchao Sun ,&nbsp;Daoning Yang ,&nbsp;Dapeng Xiong ,&nbsp;Yu Yuan","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140406","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140406","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The pursuit of high thrust performance in scramjet engines, which are intense thermochemical reactors for hypersonic propulsion, is inherently constrained by the structural integrity of combustor walls under extreme heat loads. This study investigates the fundamental trade-off between propulsive performance and structural durability in a scramjet combustor, focusing on the role of the fuel equivalence ratio (ER). Through high-fidelity numerical simulations of a coated and actively cooled combustor at ERs of 0.1, 0.21, and 0.3, we reveal that the fluid–thermal–structural interaction (FTSI) process, dominated by wall temperature rise, significantly intensifies combustion. This enhancement is evident as a transition to stable combustion at ER = 0.1 and an upstream shift of the shock system at higher ERs. Crucially, the resulting thermal loads dictate the structural response: deformation is primarily driven by thermal expansion, with material nonlinearities (plasticity and creep) becoming severe near the cavity at ER = 0.3. We demonstrate a critical trade-off where the highest specific thrust at ER = 0.3 is accompanied by a high risk of material failure in the substrate. These findings underscore that the operational envelope of such high-intensity energy conversion systems is fundamentally defined by multiphysics coupling. The study provides a critical framework for optimizing the thermal management and fuel strategy of advanced propulsion systems, balancing energy efficiency with structural durability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140406"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146186954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An enhanced intelligent-driven learning framework for adaptive multi-objective optimization control of pintle solid-fuel rocket engines","authors":"Ming Zhu ,&nbsp;Bin Wang ,&nbsp;Tiantian Liu ,&nbsp;Jiwei Yao ,&nbsp;Xiong Chen ,&nbsp;Changsheng Zhou ,&nbsp;Weixuan Li","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140405","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140405","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Intelligent learning techniques have shown increasing potential in addressing the complex control challenges of pintle solid-fuel rocket engines (PSREs), which play a key role in energy conversion applications for advanced aerospace propulsion systems. However, Intelligent thrust control in PSREs remains challenging due to strong nonlinearities and uncertainties, which adversely affect the rapidity and stability of energy output. In this paper, an enhanced intelligent-driven learning framework is proposed for achieving the adaptive multi-objective optimization control of a PSRE. The optimization objectives focus on improving the dynamic response of energy output, minimizing the finite entry time, and ensuring system safety by limiting thrust undershoot, which are key indicators of combustion instability and energy loss. To efficiently optimize the five-dimensional controller parameter space, a hybrid intelligent-driven approach is developed through a structured procedure. On this basis, optimal Latin hypercube sampling (OLHS) is first used to establish a well-distributed sample set. Moreover, a high-fidelity surrogate model is built using a radial basis function neural network (RBFNN), with its parameters refined by iterative optimization algorithm. Finally, this iterative optimized RBFNN model enables the multi-objective whale optimization algorithm (WOA) to effectively identify the pareto-optimal solutions. Results show that the optimized controller achieves about 27% reduction in finite entry time and maintains undershoot within safe margins, significantly enhancing the energy output response speed and control stability of the propulsion system. The proposed enhanced intelligent-driven learning framework offers a reliable and efficient solution for the performance optimization of energy-intensive combustion systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140405"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Full-scale experimental study on external explosion dynamics induced by liquefied petroleum gas explosion in residential environment","authors":"Qianran Hu ,&nbsp;Xiaojie Wang ,&nbsp;Qi Zhang ,&nbsp;Huijie Yang ,&nbsp;Xinming Qian ,&nbsp;Pengliang Li ,&nbsp;Mengqi Yuan","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140365","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140365","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the widespread popularization of energy, gas explosion accidents in urban residential areas occur frequently. To investigate the dynamics and disaster characteristics of external gas explosions in residential environments, a 100 m² full-scale liquefied petroleum gas explosion experimental platform was employed to study the dynamic mechanism of external explosions induced by multiple vents, as well as the propagation characteristics of shock waves and flames. Studies have shown that the long-depth and high-blocking residential environment significantly promoted flame acceleration and pressure accumulation. Under the geometric constraints of doors and windows, the shock wave focusing effect induced by the outdoor venting gas jet was enhanced, which made the Mach disk-like zone with high temperature and high pressure was easier to form and the conditions were more extreme, thus more likely to trigger high-intensity external explosion. The spatial distribution of external explosion overpressure was influenced by both the ignition position and the vent characteristics. Due to the long-distance acceleration of indoor flame and the significant formation of an outdoor Mach disk-like structure, a severe explosion with an overpressure peak of 138 kPa was generated outside the vent far from the ignition. The semi-empirical prediction model indicated that the external explosion peak overpressure exhibited a superlinear amplification pattern with respect to the indoor initial explosion intensity. The failure of multiple doors and windows resulted in multiple external explosions. The shock wave velocity fluctuated in a wavy manner due to turbulent combustion and ground Mach reflection, with the maximum velocity reaching 1079 m/s. Influenced by the external explosion, the explosion-venting flame ultimately formed an inverted spoon-shaped flame consisting of a 'stem' and a 'head'. A typical flame temperature structure of 'white flame core-orange inner flame-purple red outer flame' was formed outdoors, and finally transitioned to a temperature distribution dominated by jet flame.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140365"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187473","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pilot-scale investigation and simulation-based optimization of MDEA/PZ for post-combustion CO2 capture","authors":"Haoqin Zhuang ,&nbsp;Yindi Zhang ,&nbsp;Shadrack Adjei Takyi ,&nbsp;Jianrong Lv ,&nbsp;Zhenhua Lei ,&nbsp;Yue Xin ,&nbsp;Paitoon Tontiwachwuthikuld","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140387","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140387","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) is extensively applied in CO₂ capture processes owing to its low energy consumption and high capacity, with its absorption performance significantly enhanced when blended with piperazine (PZ). To lower the energy consumption of post-combustion capture processes (PCC), this study integrates pilot-scale experiments with process simulation to investigate energy-saving optimizations. Using an aqueous solution of piperazine-activated MDEA (35% MDEA, 3.5% PZ, and 61.5% H₂O by mass) as the absorbent, investigating the CO₂ removal efficiency and regeneration energy consumption under different L/G ratios on a pilot-scale plant. Based on this, a process model was established using HYSYS software, and an improved decarbonization process, termed “semi-lean solution reflux + lean solution waste heat utilization + mechanical vapor recompression (SLR + WHU + MVR),\" was proposed. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was utilized to investigate the influence of semi-lean solution flow rate, lean solution flow rate, semi-lean solution split ratio, and vapor pressure on the regeneration energy consumption of the modified process. RSM optimization yielded optimal parameters: semi-lean solution flow rate of 0.0012 m³/h, lean solution flow rate of 0.004 m³/h, semi-lean solution reflux ratio of 0.13, and vapor pressure of 728.117 kPa. The regeneration energy consumption of the improved process under these parameters was 5.545 MJ/kg, which is a 10.3% reduction compared to the base model.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140387"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187623","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental and simulation analysis of the optical, electrical, and daylighting performance of the asymmetric concentrating photovoltaic/daylighting system","authors":"Qingdong Xuan ,&nbsp;Ziyi Chen ,&nbsp;Bin Jiang ,&nbsp;Bin Zhao ,&nbsp;Guiqiang Li ,&nbsp;Gang Pei","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140263","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140263","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the rapid growth of the construction industry, energy consumption and environmental pollution have become critical challenges. Reducing building energy use and advancing renewable energy adoption are key solutions to these problems. To address this issue, a novel asymmetric lens-walled concentrating photovoltaic/daylighting control (LACPC-PV/D) system is proposed in this study, designed for south-facing building walls. The LACPC-PV/D system is mainly derived from the truncation of its core component, i.e., the asymmetric lens-walled compound parabolic concentrator (LACPC) with a truncation length of 20.2 mm, achieving a final geometric concentration ratio of 2.22 × . This system optimizes daylighting performance while maintaining high optical efficiency and electrical output. Ray-tracing simulations and indoor experiments were conducted to investigate the optical, electrical, and daylighting performance of the LACPC-PV/D system. Prototypes of the LACPC-PV/D module (with daylighting) and a reference LACPC-PV module (without daylighting) were fabricated and tested under standard conditions using a solar simulator. Results showed that the LACPC-PV/D module enhanced the short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and maximum power by 1.59 × , 4.7%, and 1.78 × , respectively, while the reference LACPC-PV module achieved improvements of 1.66 × , 3.8%, and 1.82 × , respectively. These findings indicate minimal impact on optical concentration performance while achieving a daylighting efficiency of 10% within incidence angles of 0–60°. Additionally, the daylighting performance of the LACPC-PV/D system was compared with conventional semi-transparent PV windows. Ray-tracing simulations demonstrated that, within incidence angles of 15°–85°, the LACPC-PV/D system delivered superior daylighting uniformity, reducing the average coefficient of variation (<em>CV</em>) for illuminance distribution from 4.06 to 2.02. To further evaluate economic performance, the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) and Simple Payback Period (SPB) were compared between the conventional flat PV system and the LACPC-PV/D system. The LACPC-PV/D system achieves an LCOE of 0.04342 USD/kWh and an SPB of 5.3511 years, compared to 0.04376 USD/kWh and 5.3928 years for the conventional system. Furthermore, its module cost per watt-peak (Wp) is approximately 9.33% lower, demonstrating a comprehensive economic benefit.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140263"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187628","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Industrial hydrogen demand response for adaptive robust operation of electric hydrogen integrated energy systems","authors":"Peng Ren ,&nbsp;Yingchao Dong ,&nbsp;Hongli Zhang ,&nbsp;Cong Wang ,&nbsp;Jing Wang ,&nbsp;Xiaochao Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140353","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140353","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The electric hydrogen integrated energy system (EHIES) enables coordinated multi-energy management and offers significant decarbonization benefits, making it a promising energy management paradigm for sectors including manufacturing and transportation. This study examines the operational characteristics of EHIES and proposes a two-layer optimization framework tailored to the hydrogen consumption process requirements of industrial applications. An industrial demand response (DR) model is formulated through an analysis of the temporal coupling among heterogeneous energy-consuming equipment across workshops within the hydrogen industry value chain. Based on industrial hydrogen utilization processes, corresponding DR rules are then defined. To address the forecast errors in wind and solar power output during the day-ahead operation phase of the EHIES, a robust optimization (RO) approach is adopted to construct an uncertainty optimization model. To mitigate the conservativeness of the conventional RO, a new adaptive RO (NARO) method is introduced, enabling decision-makers to balance conservatism and risk more effectively. Additionally, an intra-day rolling operation model is established to validate the effectiveness of the day-ahead scheduling decisions. Case study simulations verify the economic efficiency, low-carbon performance, and operational effectiveness of the proposed industrial DR model and NARO method.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140353"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187634","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Techno-economic-environmental analysis of a PVT-based solar combined cooling, heating, and power system","authors":"Jeremias E. Castro ,&nbsp;Andreas V. Olympios ,&nbsp;Asmaa A. Harraz ,&nbsp;Bryce S. Richards ,&nbsp;Jingyuan Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140313","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140313","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The growing adoption of solar energy in the residential sector plays a pivotal role in advancing sustainable energy practices, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and enhancing energy independence. This study examines a solar combined cooling, heating, and power (S-CCHP) system incorporating photovoltaic–thermal (PVT) technology and assesses its performance alongside alternative photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal (ST) configurations. A transient model is developed, together with economic and environmental assessments, to simulate overall energy performance, including the use of thermal energy from the PVT system to support summer cooling via a diffusion absorption refrigeration (DAR) cycle without using electricity during summer months. All system configurations are analysed under different layouts, both with and without battery storage. As a case study, the system is designed for application in Berlin, Germany, and the results show that the PVT-based system can supply 68% of domestic hot water demand and 48% of appliance electricity use, but only 12% of space heating due to the limited temperature output of the PVT collectors. Importantly, while the DAR system achieves full coverage of space cooling demand in summer, it relies heavily on auxiliary thermal energy input, underscoring a key area for system improvement. The economic analysis indicates net present values of approximately €7800 for PVT, €11,300 for ST, and €23,600 for PV, with corresponding payback periods of 21.0, 16.5, and 6.9 years. In terms of environmental performance, the PVT-based system achieves the highest carbon dioxide emission reduction at 2658 kg/year, followed by the PV (1904 kg/year) and ST (1781 kg/year) systems. The sensitivity analysis highlights the critical role of battery integration, especially under high grid electricity prices. In conclusion, the PVT-based S-CCHP system demonstrates strong economic and environmental potential in urban environments, while the DAR integration offers a compelling pathway for electricity-free cooling, revealing significant opportunities for optimisation and future development.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140313"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187606","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From ocean motion to green fuel: Integration of hybrid wave-tidal energy and offshore hydrogen production","authors":"Peihao Chen ,&nbsp;Yan Zhang ,&nbsp;Saeed Harati ,&nbsp;Sara Walker ,&nbsp;Karl Dearn","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140308","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140308","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Wave and tidal energy are promising renewable resources for offshore electricity generation, with hydrogen serving as a storable and transportable energy carrier. This study presents an integrated offshore hydrogen production system combining full-scale hybrid wave-tidal energy converters (HWTEC), hybrid supercapacitor-battery energy storage system, proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers, and subsea underground hydrogen storage (UHS). A system-level co-simulation framework is developed to capture the coupled dynamics of energy conversion, storage, and hydrogen production under stochastic marine conditions. UHS significantly reduces platform space requirements for hydrogen storage, enabling higher on-platform hydrogen capacity. A case study using 2024 UK wave and tidal data evaluates a conceptual platform with six HWTECs and PEM electrolyzers with combined average output of 64.8 kW. Results indicate a representative hydrogen production rate of 1.4 kg/h and an estimated annual yield of 12.4 t, with specific energy consumption of 46.8–55.7 kWh/kgH₂ and exergy efficiency of 21.4–25.3%. The system demonstrates enhanced power continuity, efficient conversion of intermittent offshore energy, and feasibility for grid-independent operation. The proposed framework advances beyond previous device-level studies by integrating multiple subsystems with real marine inputs, providing a scalable and practical tool for design, optimization, and performance assessment of offshore hybrid renewable hydrogen platforms.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140308"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187595","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Gradient-based identification of hydraulic resistance for optimal pump control in meshed district heating network","authors":"Zhikai Liu ,&nbsp;Ting Dai ,&nbsp;Lian Zhang ,&nbsp;Xin Xu ,&nbsp;Qi Zhang ,&nbsp;Yaran Wang ,&nbsp;Feng Tao","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140205","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140205","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate hydraulic resistance is essential for optimal pump control in meshed district heating networks (DHNs). However, actual resistances often deviate from design values due to pipeline aging, corrosion, or topology changes, which can reduce control effectiveness. Identifying hydraulic resistance is further complicated by the underdetermined nature of the network, as measurements are typically available only at heating substations, while the number of pipelines far exceeds the number of observable nodes in the absence of additional sensors. To address this issue, a physics-constrained gradient descent-based identification framework is proposed. Hydraulic resistance is iteratively updated using gradient descent with analytically derived gradients, relying only on pressure data under multiple operating conditions. A loss function is first defined to quantify discrepancies between observed and simulated pressures, and its analytical gradient with respect to normalized resistance is derived. The estimated resistance converges to consistent and stable equivalent values across a wide range of perturbation levels. These identified resistances effectively capture the hydraulic behavior of the network and form the basis for the optimal pump control (OPC) strategy proposed in this study. Compared to the constant pressure difference control (CPDC) strategy, the OPC strategy can save approximately 10.4% of pumping energy during the heating period.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140205"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187723","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical study on flow field characteristics of full-scale tidal current turbines in different array configurations","authors":"Yajing Gu ,&nbsp;Tian Zou ,&nbsp;Hongwei Liu ,&nbsp;Yonggang Lin ,&nbsp;Zhiwei Song ,&nbsp;Kenan Ye","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140330","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.energy.2026.140330","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The array effect of tidal current turbines (TCTs) represents a critical challenge that restricts the large-scale development of marine renewable energy. To overcome the limitations of scaled experiments and simplified models in addressing Reynolds number effects and geometric details, and to resolve the trade-offs among array configuration, wake losses, and the balance between energy capture and load stability, this study develops a high-fidelity CFD framework for a full-scale 120 kW TCT. The framework is based on Large Eddy Simulation with the WALE subgrid model. It is validated against sea-trial power output and <em>C</em>_<em>p</em> data, with the <em>C</em>_<em>p</em> deviation &lt;1.3% at optimum TSR and quantitative error metrics of RMSE = 1.81%, MAE = 1.79%, and MRE = 3.97%. Three representative staggered configurations (2–1, 1–2, 3–2) are examined under longitudinal spacings of 1D/5D/15D and co-versus counter-rotation, focusing on power performance, wake field structures, and load fluctuation characteristics. Power spectral density analysis is further employed to reveal the nonlinear mechanisms of wake-induced interference. Results reveal a non-monotonic spacing effect: counter-rotation at intermediate spacing (5D) delivers the higher total power (438 kW of 2–1 and 435 kW of 1–2) with the smaller fluctuations, compared with the long and compact spacing. Furthermore, counter-rotation is found to effectively weaken tip-vortex coherence and suppress low-frequency load oscillations, although severe performance degradation remains unavoidable in complex multi-row topologies (3–2). Based on these findings, a hybrid design strategy coupling rotational control with geometric optimization is proposed, providing a reliable reference for the optimized configuration of large-scale TCT arrays.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11647,"journal":{"name":"Energy","volume":"347 ","pages":"Article 140330"},"PeriodicalIF":9.4,"publicationDate":"2026-03-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146187249","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}