Engineering Geology最新文献

{"title":"Consolidation characteristics of diatomaceous soil in coastal reclamations revealed by CPTu tests","authors":"Pin-Qiang Mo ,&nbsp;Yu-cheng Li ,&nbsp;Guojun Cai ,&nbsp;Qiuzhu Ma ,&nbsp;Hai-Sui Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108507","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108507","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Land reclamation is widely adopted for the development of critical coastal infrastructure, yet long-term settlement remains a persistent and challenging geotechnical issue. This study systematically investigates the consolidation behavior of diatomaceous soil at Walvis Bay Harbor, Namibia, based on a combination of in-situ CPTu testing, pore pressure dissipation measurements, and laboratory experiments. By integrating cavity-expansion theory with Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation model, an inversion framework is developed to estimate the initial excess pore water pressure from current field observations. A Bayesian procedure is further applied to quantify the uncertainty of the inversion results, yielding a 90 % credible interval. The settlement evolution is preliminarily evaluated using the layer-summation method together with one-dimensional consolidation theory, and the approach is benchmarked against the Makassar Strait reclamation case. The results suggest that the unadjusted CASM parameters tend to produce lower estimates of the current excess pore water pressure in diatomaceous soil, while the predicted settlement curve generally falls below the measured values, though the observations remain within the broader prediction interval. Overall, the proposed inversion method offers a practical tool for evaluating consolidation behavior and long-term settlement in coastal reclamation projects.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108507"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145732133","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bio-geotechnical reinforcement of purple soil slopes: The synergistic effects of xanthan gum biopolymer and planting density","authors":"Zhongkai Liu ,&nbsp;Qian Peng ,&nbsp;Qi Yang ,&nbsp;Huafeng Deng ,&nbsp;Yao Xiao ,&nbsp;Daxiang Liu ,&nbsp;Yueshu Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108540","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108540","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Bio-geotechnical engineering in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) faces prominent stability challenges during the vegetation establishment period. Xanthan gum (XG) demonstrates potential for enhancing early-stage stability of root-soil composites, but the interdependent effects between XG content and planting density remain unclear. This study systematically investigates the synergistic effects between XG content (0 %, 0.6 % and 1.2 % by dry soil mass) and <em>Cynodon dactylon</em> planting density (18 and 36 g/m²) on purple soil stability through multi-mode tests. Results demonstrate that increased XG content significantly enhances soil cohesion and aggregate stability, while the 1.2 % XG content markedly inhibits plant germination and growth. Notably, mechanistic analysis reveals that under the combined effects of evaporation and soil layer thickness, high XG content induces surface cementation through upward capillary migration of XG molecules and soil cations, followed by crystallization and cross-linking upon dehydration. This process promotes the formation of a white cementation layer, which subsequently leads to preferential cracking, and seeds are consequently forced to germinate from within these cracks. Furthermore, in thicker soil layers, high XG content contributes to prolonged moisture retention and induces localized anaerobic conditions. This anaerobic environment enhances the activity of anaerobic microorganisms, leading to the formation of black metal sulfide deposits. The higher planting density (36 g/m²) can mitigate these effects by improving soil aeration and drainage through root development. Finally, Entropy-weighted TOPSIS evaluation identifies 0.6 % XG with 36 g/m² planting density as the recommended combination, effectively balancing immediate soil reinforcement with sustainable vegetation establishment. Compared to untreated purple soil, this optimized treatment achieves a 95.67 % increase in disintegration resistance index, a 196.64 % increase in cohesion, and a 31.09 % reduction in surface crack ratio. The findings could provide theoretical guidance for bio-geotechnical engineering design in TGRA and similar regions, offering references for biopolymer-vegetation interaction studies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108540"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145893883","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From mineral dissolution to slope failure: wet-dry cycling driven multiscale degradation of Cenozoic red-bed mudstone, NE Tibetan Plateau","authors":"Yezi Quan ,&nbsp;Zuopeng Wang ,&nbsp;Jianbing Peng ,&nbsp;Yiguo Xue ,&nbsp;Mingdong Zang ,&nbsp;Yan Lv ,&nbsp;Ruihao Ning ,&nbsp;Changming Lu ,&nbsp;Chao Xue","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108530","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108530","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Extensive Cenozoic red-bed mudstone, highly susceptible to slope failure, is distributed across the NE Tibetan Plateau. These rocks undergo progressively deterioration under repeated wet–dry cycling (WDC) driven by intense seasonal rainfall, ultimately forming slip surfaces. However, the multiscale mechanisms governing this deterioration and instability remain poorly understood. To address this, we applied a multiscale investigation integrating field observations, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), computed tomography (CT), triaxial testing, and numerical modeling. The results reveal the evolution of red-bed mudstone under WDC, from mineral dissolution and pore expansion to fracture interconnection, stress concentration, and mechanical degradation. Key findings include: (1) Differential dissolution of clay minerals (e.g., kaolinite) and feldspar increases the porosity from 1.8 % to 16.3 %, triggering the initial deterioration; (2) WDC further raises the porosity from 9.8 % to 16.9 %, interconnects isolated fractures into a continuous network, and enhances permeability from 10.2 × 10⁻⁶ to 561.9 × 10⁻⁶ Darcy, accelerating internal structural degradation; (3) This evolving degradation network induces stress concentration, leading to a 84 % reduction in strength (from 8905.68 to 1419.85 kPa) and a 79.5 % reduction in cohesion (from 1931.4 to 395.8 kPa), substantially weakening the slope stability; (4) At the slope scale, an “externally dry, internally wet” structure develops, where the coupled effects of mineral dissolution, pore evolution, permeability enhancement, and strength loss drive a progressive creep failure, characterized by external fracturing and internal softening. Thus, this study establishes a multiscale coupled evolution model and elucidates how WDC induces differential sliding in red-bed slopes, providing a theoretical basis for landslide prediction in such regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108530"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145881858","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Distribution-free estimation for three-dimensional diameter of rock discontinuities within complex high-steep slope based on Bertrand paradox","authors":"Sicong Wang ,&nbsp;Shengyuan Song ,&nbsp;Mingyu Zhao ,&nbsp;Ziyue Xu ,&nbsp;Yaoyao Jiang ,&nbsp;Muye Ma ,&nbsp;Haojie Li","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108538","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108538","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Traditional diameter estimation methods rely on the assumption that the midpoint of trace is uniformly distributed along the diameter of discontinuities and require sampling planes to share the same strike. This limitation renders them inapplicable to high-steep rock slopes with complex topography and undulating slope surfaces. In this situation, accurately estimating the average diameter of discontinuities has become a critical issue that requires urgent resolution. This study proposes a novel hypothesis based on Bertrand paradox that the midpoint of traces is uniformly distributed within the discontinuity for the first time. A new implicit probability function model for two-dimensional trace length and three-dimensional diameter was reconstructed, and a discretized numerical method was used to estimate the numerical solution of average diameter. A distribution-free accurate correction method for the average diameter of discontinuities in complex high-steep slopes has been proposed for the first time. The new method effectively suppresses size bias while eliminating orientation bias. Extensive validation through 162 sets of simulated data confirms the robustness of the new method, with mean relative errors consistently maintain below 15 %. Systematically analyzed the impact of four key discontinuity parameters (dip direction, dip angle, diameter size, and diameter distribution type) on estimation errors and proposed selecting principles for estimation parameters. Furthermore, the mapping relationship of distribution between diameter and intersection trace length is further revealed. Finally, the new method was applied to a high-steep slope with a height difference of 959 m. The consistency between the estimated and actual survey results indicates the reliability of the new method in complex high-steep slope engineering. The research outcomes break through the technical bottleneck in accurate characterization of rock mass discontinuity sizes, provide important references for evaluating the shape parameters of non-circular discontinuities, and hold significant implications for stability evaluation of high-steep rock slopes in hard mountain areas.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108538"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145893884","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A theoretical model for ground surface temperature under seasonal snow cover condition and numerical application in THM coupling of permafrost subgrade","authors":"Gaosheng Li ,&nbsp;Yundong Zhou ,&nbsp;Xiangtian Xu ,&nbsp;Yuqin Zhao ,&nbsp;Henglin Xiao ,&nbsp;Ruiqiang Bai ,&nbsp;Yongtao Wang ,&nbsp;Yuhang Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2026.108550","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2026.108550","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Snow possesses poor heat conduction properties due to its high reflectivity and low thermal conductivity, which significantly influences the energy exchange between the ground and the atmosphere. The randomness of the change in snow depth also exacerbates the complexity of the frost damage problem in highway engineering in cold regions. The conventional snow model is predicated on empirical formulas and a plethora of undetermined parameters, which renders it challenging to achieve the efficient integration of the dynamic change of snow depth and the multi-physical field coupling process of frozen soil. In this study, we proposed a simple and efficient method to equivalent the dynamic boundary conditions to periodic time-varying boundary conditions for simulating the variation of ground surface temperature under seasonal snow cover conditions. The accuracy of the method was verified using measured data. The present study developed a functional relationship between land surface temperature and ground surface temperature in seasonal snow cover areas by comparing the differences in the variation of ground surface temperature under the conditions of four kinds of snow melting time and seven kinds of maximum snow depths in the annual cycle. Finally, based on the engineering geological information of the surveyed Genhe-Mangui highway, we established a thermal-hydro-mechanical (THM) coupling model of permafrost snow-covered subgrade, and fully considered the randomness of the maximum snow depth. This work can provide a practical theoretical model for predicting the ground surface temperature of snow-covered ground, and offer a novel understanding of the frost damage caused by snow-covered subgrade.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108550"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145939758","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From hydro-meteorological thresholds towards an operational warning model for landslides at regional scale: A real-case application","authors":"Sen Zhang ,&nbsp;Gaetano Pecoraro ,&nbsp;Da Huang ,&nbsp;Jianbing Peng ,&nbsp;Bei Zhang ,&nbsp;Michele Calvello","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2026.108542","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2026.108542","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Landslide prediction is essential for developing a landslide early warning system. Recently, hydro-meteorological thresholds combining rainfall and hydrological variables have demonstrated their effectiveness in enhancing the predictive capability of landslide occurrences. However, most territorial landslide early warning systems operational worldwide are primarily developed using only rainfall thresholds, totally neglecting the hydrological process that contributes to landslide initiation. In this study, we propose a three-step procedure aimed at developing a hydro-meteorological warning model intended for operational use employing multiple hydro-meteorological thresholds derived from a probabilistic analysis, using soil saturation and precipitation data retrieved from the ERA5-Land product. The model developed herein was tested in one of the warning zones defined by civil protection for the management of geo-hydrological risk in Campania region, Italy. Performance indicators derived adopting the “event, duration matrix, performance” (EDuMaP) method highlight that the hydro-meteorological warning model developed in this study—using real-time forecasts from the Integrated Forecasting System - High-Resolution (IFS-HRES) product—outperforms the current implemented warning model, which depends exclusively on precipitation forecasts. Specifically, the inclusion of soil saturation into the warning model leads to a significant reduction of false alarms. The results achieved herein demonstrate that hydro-meteorological thresholds can be effectively employed within landslide early warning systems for real-world applications at regional scale.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108542"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145957215","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Creep of water-bearing soft rock and its influence on long-term rock mass stability","authors":"Zhao-Qiang Zheng ,&nbsp;Li Zhuo ,&nbsp;Jian-Liang Pei ,&nbsp;Ming-Li Xiao ,&nbsp;Huai-Zhong Liu ,&nbsp;Hong-Qiang Xie ,&nbsp;Tao Luo","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108505","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108505","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Creep of soft rock is influenced by many factors, among which the water content exhibits a significant influence on both deformation and strength properties of rock, thus making the prediction and control of the creep of water-bearing soft rock bodies difficult. Here, the creep characteristics of a water-bearing soft rock from a water diversion project was investigated through triaxial unloading creep tests. The results demonstrate that the increasing water content weakens rock strength, augments the creep deformation and promotes time-dependent volume dilation, whereas the confining pressure plays an inhibiting role in creep deformation. Notably, a transition from compressive to dilative steady volumetric creep rate was observed with the decreasing confining pressure, and the corresponding transition stress threshold was identified as the long-term strength of rock. Besides, a coupled damage law was observed from the test results. Building upon these findings, a nonlinear elasto-viscoplastic creep model (NWSC) integrating a time-dependent coupled water–stress damage function and a novel nonlinear viscoplastic model was proposed. Subsequently, this model was implemented in FLAC3D to estimate the long-term stability of the water diversion soft rock tunnel affected by potential water leakage. The research results provide critical insights into the long-term mechanical behaviors of water-bearing soft rock and an advanced theoretical tool to predict the time-dependent behaviors of geological bodies subjected to the weakening effect of underground water.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108505"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731844","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Propagation of porous slurry veins in marine hydrate reservoirs via dual-enhanced fracture grouting","authors":"Yun Qi ,&nbsp;Youhong Sun ,&nbsp;Bing Li ,&nbsp;Pengfei Xie ,&nbsp;Hengfeng Shan ,&nbsp;Xilong Liu ,&nbsp;Guobiao Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108535","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108535","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Unlike traditional fracture grouting methods for reinforcing soft soils, a novel technique known as Dual-enhanced fracture grouting (DEFG) has been proposed. By utilizing a specially designed dual-enhanced slurry in fracture grouting, which, upon solidification, forms high-strength, highly-permeable slurry veins within the reservoir. Marine hydrate reservoirs, with weak mechanical properties and poor permeability, exhibit low production efficiency, making this technique shows strong potential for enhancing gas production. To explore the effects of soil properties on fracture initiation and slurry diffusion, DEFG experiments were conducted on clayey-silty sediments with water saturation ranging from 40 % to 100 %, the slurry diffusion behavior was analyzed, and the morphology and pore structure of slurry veins were examined. The results showed that higher sediment cohesion and permeability increased initiation pressure, slurry diffused more easily in sediments with higher water saturation, leading to the formation of more slurry vein wings and a larger coverage area. Porosity analysis showed that the slurry veins have a porosity of about 60 % and are dominated by large pores (∼7.4 μm), with the proportion of macropores slightly increasing in sediments with higher water saturation, which exhibit excellent permeability. As the slurry veins develop into complex and widely distributed networks, their high porosity and large pore sizes promote efficient gas and water transport, ultimately enhancing the efficiency of hydrate extraction. These findings confirm the feasibility of DEFG technology for efficient hydrate development and demonstrate its potential as a new geotechnical approach for foundation reinforcement and drainage.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108535"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145893630","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coupled thermal and pressure effects on thermal conductivity of joint-filled bentonite in engineered barrier systems","authors":"Yunshan Xu ,&nbsp;Jiangtao Tao ,&nbsp;Changjie Zheng ,&nbsp;De'’an Sun","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108521","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108521","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The thermal conductivity characteristics of bentonite blocks with filled joints directly influence the temperature field distribution and safety assessment within the repository. In this study, the thermal conductivity of compacted bentonite powder and joint-filled specimens was tested using the thermal needle probe method under a wide range of temperatures (20–90 °C) and pressures (0–20 MPa). A series of microstructural analyses were also conducted on representative specimens to investigate the potential influence and microscopic mechanisms of joint type and width on bentonite thermal conductivity under complex buffer conditions. Tested results show that at room temperature, the thermal conductivity of joint-filled specimens is up to approximately 27.01 % lower than that of compacted powder specimens (without joints), which is attributed to the larger total porosity and dominant pore size in joint-filled specimens leading to insufficient particle contact. The temperature effect on thermal conductivity of joint-filled specimens is significantly greater than that of specimens without joints. With increasing joint width, the thermal conductivity of joint-filled specimens decreases, while the temperature effect correspondingly increases. This is mainly because the joint-filled specimens have more pores and dominant heat transfer paths favorable for latent heat transfer of vapour. Pressure increases the thermal conductivity of all specimen types but weakens the temperature effect on thermal conductivity, with this weakening effect becoming more pronounced as joint width increases. High pressure may disrupt the dominant paths for latent heat transfer of vapour, while larger joint widths increase both the dominant inter-aggregate pore size and number, thereby enhancing the temperature effect and its attenuation under pressure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"362 ","pages":"Article 108521"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145823486","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Contribution of time-evolving landslide sources to the anomalous tsunami observed in the 2024 Noto earthquake","authors":"Ming-Jen Lo ,&nbsp;Tso-Ren Wu ,&nbsp;Kenji Satake","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108504","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108504","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>On January 1, 2024, a powerful earthquake (M 7.6) struck the Noto Peninsula, Japan, triggering a tsunami in the Sea of Japan. In Toyama Bay, the tsunami arrived earlier than expected. This study investigates the 2024 Noto tsunami event by separately modeling three potential tsunami generation mechanisms: vertical displacement from fault motion, horizontal displacement, and submarine landslides. To enhance the accuracy of submarine landslide-induced tsunami modeling, a computational fluid dynamics model, SPLASH3D, is utilized to simulate the landslide dynamics and determine its duration. Subsequently, a temporally variable seabed motion is used as the initial condition for a tsunami simulation code, COMCOT, to generate a dynamic tsunami source. The simulation results indicate that the sliding process has a significant influence on the observed tsunami in Toyama Bay, producing waveforms that better match observations than those derived from the equivalent instantaneous initial free surface displacement method. The combined simulation of dynamic submarine landslides, vertical displacements from fault motion, and horizontal displacements of the Noto Peninsula closely matches the observed data, enabling a detailed analysis of each source's contribution to the anomalous tsunami. Simulation results indicate that the submarine landslide was responsible for the early arrival of the tsunami. The contributions of the vertical fault displacement and submarine landslide each account for approximately 45 % of the maximum wave height, elucidating the unexpectedly high tsunami wave height. Therefore, the risks posed by landslide-generated tsunamis constitute a critical issue that must be addressed in tsunami early warning and coastal engineering risk assessment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"361 ","pages":"Article 108504"},"PeriodicalIF":8.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145731845","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}