Engineering Geology最新文献

{"title":"Unravelling failure mechanisms of rainfall-induced debris slides through material characterisation and reduced-scale flume experiments","authors":"Manish Dewrari,&nbsp;Srikrishnan Siva Subramanian","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108051","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108051","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rainfall-induced debris slides are a major geological hazard in the Himalayan region, where slopes often comprise heterogeneous debris—a complex mixture of rock and soil. The complex nature makes traditional soil or rock testing methods inadequate for assessing such debris's engineering behaviour and failure mechanisms. Alternatively, reduced-scale flume experiments may aid in understanding the failure process of debris slopes. Here, we present findings from reduced-scale laboratory flume experiments performed under varying slope angles (ranging from shallow to steep), initial volumetric water contents (ranging from dry to wet), and rainfall intensities (ranging from light to heavy) using debris materials with a median grain size (<em>D</em>_<em>50</em>) 20.7 mm sampled from a rainfall-induced debris slide site in the Himalayas. Hydrological variables, including volumetric water content and matric suction, were monitored using sensors, while slope displacement was tracked indirectly, and rainfall was monitored using rain gauges. The entire failure process was captured via video recording, and index and shear strength tests were performed to characterize the debris material. Our results reveal that the failure of debris slopes is not driven by sudden increases in pore water pressure but by the loss of unsaturated shear strength due to reduced matric suction and a decreased frictional strength from reduced particle contact between grains during rainfall. We also find that the saturation of debris slope by rainfall was quick irrespective of the slope angles and initial moisture contents, revealing the proneness of debris slopes to rainfall-induced failures. These findings provide critical insights into the stability of debris materials and have important implications for improving risk assessment and mitigation strategies for rainfall-induced debris slides in the Himalayas and similar regions worldwide.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"352 ","pages":"Article 108051"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143769237","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fracture characteristics and fatigue failure signals of thermal storage rock under stepwise pulsation pressurization","authors":"Zhanming Shi ,&nbsp;Jiangteng Li ,&nbsp;P.G. Ranjith ,&nbsp;Hang Lin ,&nbsp;Taoying Liu ,&nbsp;Kaihui Li ,&nbsp;Dongya Han","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108048","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108048","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the exploitation of deep-earth energy, the challenges posed by fatigue disturbance and high temperatures are becoming increasingly severe. This paper studies fracture characteristics and fatigue failure signals of thermal storage rock under stepwise pulsation pressurization (SPP). First, the evolution of macroscopic mechanical parameters such as strength-deformation, fracture toughness, and fracture process zone (FPZ) size of the sample were analyzed. Then, the sample's fracture characteristics were studied based on acoustic emission and optical-electrical analysis techniques, and the fracture mechanism of the sample was explained using the cohesive zone model. Finally, based on the G-R relationship, time series analysis and critical slowing-down theory, three different fatigue failure signals were defined, and the early warning effects of the different signals were discussed. Laboratory work has shown that, compared with static monotonic loading, the <em>K</em>_<em>Ic</em> of the sample under SPP is reduced by about 9.3 % on average. The crack evolution in the sample under SPP can be divided into three stages, and the distribution of ringing counts and peak frequency signals has stage characteristics. The peak frequency signal is concentrated in the 100 kHz ∼ 400 kHz, and multi-band coexistence will occur before fatigue failure. In addition, with the increase of temperature, the <em>K</em>_<em>Ic</em> of the sample decreases nonlinearly and the FPZ size increases nonlinearly. Crack activity is enhanced in the early loading stage, and low-stress-induced cracks increase. The maximum strain at the crack tip decreases, and the relative rate of crack growth slows down. The strain level required for sample fracture is reduced, and the subcritical crack growth stage is prolonged. Compared with the b value, using the function F and RA/AF as fatigue failure signals can simplify the calculation and improve the early warning effect.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"352 ","pages":"Article 108048"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143777588","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An integrated machine learning framework using borehole descriptions for 3D lithological modeling","authors":"Deping Chu ,&nbsp;Bo Wan ,&nbsp;Yiyang Liu ,&nbsp;Lulan Li ,&nbsp;Hong Li ,&nbsp;Fang Fang ,&nbsp;Shengwen Li ,&nbsp;Shengyong Pan ,&nbsp;Min Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108050","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108050","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The exponential growth of digital data and advancements in machine learning have greatly enhanced subsurface visualization. However, text data has rarely been utilized in 3D lithological modeling, as scientific research tends to favor numerical data. This study introduces an integrated machine learning framework that leverages Natural Language Processing (NLP) to analyze lithological descriptions and to classify and map lithological features in 3D space. The framework enables direct interpretation of lithological descriptions, which document geological and pedological information at discrete depth intervals during drilling. Transfer learning through fine-tuning of the pre-trained RoBERTa language model is employed to enhance the ability to mine geological domain information. To address the long-distance contextual dependencies in lithological descriptions, a multi-scale graph convolutional network (GCN) is designed to capture features at varying perceptual scales. Additionally, lithological thickness and burial depth are incorporated into the multi-scale features to enhance regional adaptability. The framework maps fused features to specific lithological types in vector space. Finally, Random Forest (RF) is used for lithological interpolation, with results visualized in 3D voxels. Experimental results demonstrate that integrating NLP and machine learning produces accurate 3D lithological representations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"351 ","pages":"Article 108050"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143740076","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A laboratory observation for gas-rock mechanics and gas transport mechanism in low-permeability rocks","authors":"Ze-xiang Sun ,&nbsp;Shi-xin Zhou","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108049","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108049","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The fluid migration (including gases) in sedimentary rocks affects fluid overpressurization, resource enrichment, and other geologic processes in the basin, while fluid mobility is mainly controlled by low-permeability rocks. This study evaluated the gas transport in low-permeability rocks in various confining and pore pressures conditions by experimental methods. Firstly, we measured the gas permeability (apparent permeability) of the low-permeability rocks of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, China. Secondly, we defined the intrinsic permeability (liquid permeability) and the effective stress coefficient of the permeability of the core samples by the Klinkenberg correction method, and then we determined the stress sensitivity of porosity and permeability. Finally, we analyzed the gas transport mechanism in the low-permeability rocks. This study found that the stress sensitivity of the porosity of the studied samples showed minor variations and was mainly influenced by the clay minerals; however, the stress sensitivity of the permeability was considerably varied and was not significantly related to the clay minerals, and the effective stress coefficient for the Klinkenberg correction is not equal to 1 as conventional studies have suggested. We also found that the gas permeability is affected by the molecular slippage effect, the Klinkenberg curve conforms to a second-order slippage model (quadratic curve) rather than the classical linear model. The gas transport flow regimes are slippage flow and transition flow, and the contribution of the slippage effect to the apparent permeability is negatively correlated with the pore size, gas pressure, and roughness of the channel surface.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"352 ","pages":"Article 108049"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143799566","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Monotonic fluid injection induces fault instability and slip: A laboratory study","authors":"Jianfeng Liu ,&nbsp;Chengxing Zhao ,&nbsp;Hangyu Dai ,&nbsp;Jinbing Wei ,&nbsp;Jianxiong Yang ,&nbsp;Huining Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108047","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108047","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the instability and slip behavior of Longmaxi shale faults with specific surface morphologies under monotonic fluid injection. The results indicate that the slip process can be categorized into dynamic and quasi-dynamic slip stages, with both the injection rate and surface morphology significantly influencing fault slip characteristics and stability. An increase in the injection rate and a decrease in surface roughness lead to a notable rise in dynamic slip displacement and released energy <em>E</em>_s, causing the overall slip mode to transition from slow slip to seismic slip. Furthermore, the seismic injection efficiency observed in this study (5.4 × 10^−3% ∼ 7.9 × 10^−1%) aligns well with results from other experiments, numerical simulations, and field observations. The relationships among seismic injection efficiency, seismic moment magnitude <em>M</em>_w, seismic moment <em>M</em>₀, and released energy <em>E</em>_s are also strongly affected by fault surface morphology. When fluid pressure exhibits heterogeneity along the fault, the rapid increase in driving shear stress τ_d in the unpressurized zone may not only mitigate fluid overpressure but also enhance the fault's sensitivity to fluid injection, leading to higher <em>M</em>_w and <em>M</em>₀. This work provides critical theoretical insights and technical guidance for assessing and mitigating seismic risks associated with shale gas extraction.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"351 ","pages":"Article 108047"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143715815","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"VoxFall: Non-parametric volumetric change detection for rockfalls","authors":"Ioannis Farmakis,&nbsp;Davide Ettore Guccione,&nbsp;Klaus Thoeni,&nbsp;Anna Giacomini","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108045","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108045","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Surveying methods such as digital photogrammetry and laser scanning have been used to detect surficial changes by comparing two 3D models. This study deals with the manipulation of 3D digital models of rock slopes within the scope of rockfall monitoring which includes the objective of detecting and quantifying rockfall events as discrete blocks. Current change detection methods for rockfalls are based on distance computation between two rock slope models complemented successively by spatial clustering and cluster shape reconstruction routines, and include severe challenges associated with the profound interdependence of parameter tuning between the different steps. To solve these issues, we introduce a new algorithm – VoxFall – that does not rely on distance computation and its objective is to eliminate user subjectivity by launching a new tool for rockfall monitoring that would only be controlled by the quality of the input data. The method treats the two input models as a single scene and applies two steps: 1) fitting an occupancy voxel grid of a resolution defined by the registration error; 2) empty space clustering and volume computation based on voxel adjacency. Comparison with existing methods across both synthetic and real rock slope datasets demonstrates the sensitivity of the distance-based methods and the dependency on the input parameters compared to the results of our method. Application on original data predicts almost perfectly the rockfall volume (0.3 % difference) within an arrangement of recorded rockfall events. We provide evidence of current techniques requiring pre-existing knowledge of rockfall activity to tune them while VoxFall comprises a unified framework that enables direct accurate volume detection and clustering with no user intervention. The algorithm has been implemented in an open-source software package.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"352 ","pages":"Article 108045"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143759982","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Failure process analysis of a catastrophic landslide in Zhenxiong triggered by prolonged low-intensity rainfall using centrifuge tests","authors":"Qiankuan Wang ,&nbsp;Bin Li ,&nbsp;Aiguo Xing ,&nbsp;Yiwei Liu ,&nbsp;Yu Zhuang ,&nbsp;Muhammad Bilal","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108044","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108044","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rainfall-induced landslides are a prevalent geological hazard worldwide, causing severe ecological and socio-economic impacts. While they can be triggered by extreme rainfall, typhoon storms, and prolonged low-intensity rainfall, the damage caused by landslides from prolonged low-intensity rainfall is often underestimated. However, catastrophic landslides can occur when such rainfall couples with fragile geological conditions and groundwater seepage. In January 2013 and January 2024, two devastating landslides occurred in Zhenxiong County, each causing over 40 fatalities. Both events occurred during Zhenxiong's unique prolonged rainy (snowy) season, drawing significant attention from researchers. We conducted a centrifuge test to simulate the failure process of the Zhaojiagou landslide in 2013 under the influence of prolonged low-intensity rainfall and groundwater seepage. Furthermore, the high mobility genesis and post-disaster deformation evolution of the disaster were analyzed based on ring shear tests and remote sensing interpretation. Our work reveals the destabilization behavior and failure characteristics of catastrophic landslides induced by prolonged low-intensity rainfall. It also offers insights into the coupling effect of geology, rainfall, and groundwater on small-scale landslides that turn into major disasters.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"351 ","pages":"Article 108044"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143715814","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Creep parameter inversion and long-term deformation prediction of a near-dam slope considering spatio-temporal deformation data during construction and impoundment period","authors":"Yaoru Liu ,&nbsp;Wenyu Zhuang ,&nbsp;Chenfeng Gao ,&nbsp;Chengyao Wei ,&nbsp;Lijun Xue ,&nbsp;Qiang Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108043","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108043","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Adequate calibration of material parameters is the prerequisite for credible long-term deformation prediction of reservoir bank slopes. In this study, a creep parameter inversion method accounting for water effect and mechanical characteristics of rock masses is proposed. The elasto-viscoplastic model based on internal variables is introduced in inversion, which incorporates transient pore pressure effect, progressive strength degradation in hydro-fluctuation belt and saturated zone, as well as dam-foundation interaction induced by periodic water level fluctuations. The inversion process integrates a metaheuristic algorithm (improved adaptive genetic algorithm, IAGA) with a BP neural network-based (BPNN) surrogate model. A segmented and incremental strategy is implemented in objective function to capture the spatio-temporal heterogeneity of the deformations observed at each point. Besides, random perturbation coefficients, derived from statistical experimental results of multiple hydropower projects, are introduced to constrain friction coefficient (<em>f</em>) and cohesion (<em>c</em>), addressing the heteroscedastic nature of strength parameters. Leveraging deformation measurements spanning approximately 17 years from 27 observation points during the construction and impoundment periods, an inversion is performed on 48 creep parameters across 8 materials of a near-dam slope. Based on the calibrated parameters, predictions are made for the convergence time, stabilization time, and ultimate deformation. The results indicate that the calculated deformation aligns well with field observations, revealing that certain portions of the slope remain in a stress adjustment phase. The predicted deformation convergence is expected between 2025 and 2036, with stabilization occurring between 2034 and 2039, and an ultimate deformation ranging from 165 to 215 mm.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"351 ","pages":"Article 108043"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143715817","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"New paradigm for sand liquefaction under cyclic loadings","authors":"Guoxing Chen ,&nbsp;Xing Xiao ,&nbsp;Qi Wu ,&nbsp;You Qin ,&nbsp;Hongmei Gao ,&nbsp;Chengshun Xu ,&nbsp;Armin W. Stuedlein","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108041","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108041","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite over six decades of field and laboratory investigations, theoretical studies, and advances in constitutive modeling, questions remain on the fundamental issues concerning liquefaction mechanisms, the collective influence of multiple factors on excess pore water pressure (EPWP) generation, and liquefaction triggering criteria. This paper presents the general apparent viscosity- and average flow coefficient-based methodology for quantifying the solid-liquid phase-change process of liquefiable soil under undrained cyclic loading. The analysis reveals that the evolution of the soil particle-fabric system is the fundamental physico-mechanical mechanism behind EPWP generation in a liquefiable soil, with the accompanying change in soil physical state serving as the intrinsic mechanism driving EPWP generation. The study further identifies the physico-mechanical foundations of EPWP generation, as well as the inherent causes and a unified quantitative characterization of the coupled influences of multiple factors on EPWP generation. This work presents the novel observation that the marginal peak excess pore pressure ratio (<em>r</em>_{<em>u</em>,pm}) between the solid-liquid mixed phase and the liquid phase of liquefiable soil can be identified accurately and that <em>r</em>_{<em>u</em>,pm} is characterized by its inherent robustness. A <em>r</em>_{<em>u</em>,pm} value of 0.90 can be used as a liquefaction triggering criterion for soils both in laboratory element tests and in the field. Another original finding is that the liquefaction triggering resistance curve is the threshold state curve between solid-liquid mixed phase and transiently liquid phase of a liquefiable soil and is unique for a specific initial physical state. The definitions of liquefaction triggering and corresponding liquefaction triggering resistance are clear and unambiguous and have the same physico-mechanical basis. The insights obtained in this paper will potentially enable the scientific and engineering communities to reinterpret the liquefaction mechanism, its evaluation, and liquefaction mitigation strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"351 ","pages":"Article 108041"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143705576","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of metal cations on the yield stress of montmorillonite debris flow: Double layer analysis and novel model establishment","authors":"Wenfeng Zhu,&nbsp;Jiajun Zhang,&nbsp;Qiquan Deng,&nbsp;Yingli Zhang,&nbsp;Jiupeng Zhang,&nbsp;Zhijia Xue","doi":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108026","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.enggeo.2025.108026","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Yield stress is an important parameter determining the transport of debris flow. The main metal cations (Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Al³⁺), of debris flow, were seldom studied on the yield stress. In this paper, clay, standard sand and gravel are configured in the ratio of 1:2:4 by mass to form the solid-phase portion of the debris flow respectively. Various metal cations (Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Al³⁺) with different concentrations were used to investigate the microstructure, bound water content, zeta potential, and yield stress of montmorillonite debris flow. Metal cations had little effect on the microstructure of montmorillonite particles, but they could significantly compress the thickness of the double layer. When the concentration of Al³⁺ reached 0.039 mol/L, the weakly bound water content decreased to 136.8 %. This led to a dramatic decrease in the yield stress of the debris flow from 189.3 Pa (without metal cations) to 1.6 Pa (0.039 mol/L Al³⁺). Furthermore, the higher the valence state of the metal cation, the more significant the weakening effect on the yield stress of the debris flow. When the water content of the debris flow increases from 26.3 % to 37 %, the yield stress drops precipitously from 1727.5 Pa to 119 Pa. In the debris flow with a water content of 26.3 %, the yield stress even drops below 119 Pa, reaching 98.3 Pa under the action of 0.019 mol/L of Ca²⁺. By introducing Avogadro's number (Na), the shielding coefficient (<span><math><msub><mi>k</mi><mi>d</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><msub><mi>V</mi><mi>f</mi></msub><mi>Vs</mi></mfrac><mo>∗</mo><msup><mi>θ</mi><mo>′</mo></msup></math></span>), and further revising the size of montmorillonite particles, comparing the novel model results with the measured data, the accuracy of the model was verified from three aspects: zeta potential, metal cation concentration, and water content. Metal cations reduce the surface charge of montmorillonite, resulting in a decrease in zeta potential and a weakening of the adsorption capacity of bound water. Within the range of zeta potential from −9.3 to −8.5 mV, metal cation concentration from 0 to 0.02 mol/L, and water content from 26.3 % to 37 %, the yield stress decreases significantly. This study provides a theoretical reference for subsequent research on the initiation mechanism and transport laws of debris flows.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11567,"journal":{"name":"Engineering Geology","volume":"352 ","pages":"Article 108026"},"PeriodicalIF":6.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143829222","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}