Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics最新文献

{"title":"Three-Dimensional Motions of Unbonded Post-Tensioned Reinforced Concrete Bridge Piers Under Bi-Directional Earthquake Excitation","authors":"Yu Shen,&nbsp;Fabio Freddi,&nbsp;Weibing Peng,&nbsp;Anxin Guo,&nbsp;Jianzhong Li","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70063","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70063","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The study of unbonded post-tensioned (PT) bridge piers continues to gain momentum, as they can produce self-centering lateral force behavior with limited structural damage; however, little attention has been given to the dynamic responses of these controlled rocking systems. This paper presents an experimental study to investigate the motion pattern and assess the seismic performance of unbonded post-tensioned reinforced concrete (PRC) rocking bridge piers under uni- and bi-directional earthquake excitation. A conventional PRC pier and two improved versions with end segments enhanced, respectively, by a steel tube and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) were investigated through shaking table tests. The experimental outcomes highlighted the potential limitations of the two enhanced strategies in terms of damage-tolerance and rotation-dominance. Tests also revealed that the bi-directional displacement of PRC piers can be estimated from the individual uniaxial responses using the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) rule. In contrast, the force responses are overestimated by SRSS. Moreover, it has been observed that PRC piers are characterized by a three-dimensional (3D) wobbling motion with a contact region around the circular base instead of the sudden point impact during in-plane rocking. An analytical model is presented for the 3D rigid motion of PRC piers subjected to bi-directional earthquakes, which accounts for variations in the contact region at the pier-to-footing interface and relevant energy loss. The model's predicted responses aligned closely with the rotation-induced results derived from experimental data, provided the interface's contact properties were properly calibrated. The findings and results provide significant insights into the seismic response of PRC rocking piers, as well as further refinement of damage-tolerant solutions.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3893-3915"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145486913","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advanced Design Method for Failure Control in Column-Drilled Shaft Sockets: A Combined Experimental and Numerical Study","authors":"Zeng Zeng,&nbsp;Fabio Freddi,&nbsp;Yan Xu,&nbsp;Zhigang Wang","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70057","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70057","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Socket connections play a pivotal role in accelerating construction and improving bridges’ resilience in seismic-prone regions. However, current design guidelines for reinforced concrete (RC) column-drilled shaft socket connections (CDSSCs) may inadequately account for the required shaft transverse reinforcement (STR). This study proposes an improved design method to estimate the hoop tension demand and capacity of shafts and determine the optimal spacing of STR. The proposed method is validated through quasi-static cyclic tests conducted on five CDSSCs with varying axial loads and column configurations. The tests highlighted different failure modes, including plastic hinges at the column bases, severe shaft cracking, debonding at the shaft-steel corrugated tube interface, and eventual shaft failure. The study further highlighted the response of CDSSCs by analyzing the deformation patterns, hysteretic behavior, and shaft reinforcement strains. Finite element (FE) models were developed in ABAQUS to replicate the experimental results, including force-drift responses, local responses, and failure modes. The validated ABAQUS models were used to perform a numerical parametric analysis by varying the STR spacing. For increasing STR spacings, the failure mode of the CDSSC progressively transitions from column to shaft failure, while the force transfer mechanism transitions from bending-dominated action to prying-dominated action. The results confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed method in controlling the failure modes of CDSSCs and designing the STR spacing.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3846-3867"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145486999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the Influence of Impact in Tuned Mass Systems","authors":"Domenico Pagano,&nbsp;Maurizio De Angelis,&nbsp;Ugo Andreaus","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70058","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70058","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This work evaluates how the dynamic response of the tuned mass damper (TMD) systems changes following the insertion of suitable displacement limiters. The systems, pounding tuned mass damper (PTMD), use the tuned mass to absorb the kinetic energy from the main system and dissipate it through the TMD damper and the impacts with the bumpers. Through numerical analyses, an optimal bumper design procedure is introduced; the effectiveness of the PTMD systems subjected to harmonic excitations at the base is evaluated, both for conventional and unconventional mass ratios; it is evaluated under which conditions the PTMD systems are more effective than the TMD systems; finally, the robustness of these systems to both TMD and bumpers parameters is investigated. The main results obtained have shown that (i) inserting bumpers to an optimally designed TMD does not lead to a more effective mitigation system; (ii) in those cases where optimally realizing a TMD can be complicated, or there are design constraints, the insertion of bumpers can bring significant increases in effectiveness; (iii) all the systems analyzed have shown an increase in effectiveness as the mass ratio of the TMD increases, up to a critical mass ratio after which losses in effectiveness are recorded; (iv) the analyses on the robustness of the PTMD systems have shown that such systems have good robustness both to TMD and bumpers parameters, highlighting how the parameter to which such systems are most sensitive are the distance between the auxiliary mass of the TMD and the bumpers.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3868-3892"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145487000","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Geological and Historical-Based Approaches to Define Scenario Earthquake: Case-Studies and Application at Municipality-Scale in Italy","authors":"Sgobba Sara,&nbsp;Minotti Elisa,&nbsp;Freddi Marta,&nbsp;Luzi Lucia","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70059","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70059","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study compares two approaches for determining earthquake magnitude (M) and source-to-site distance (R) to assess seismic scenarios in Italy. The first method relies on geological criteria from the Italian seismogenic sources database (DISS3.3.0), while the second method uses historical earthquakes from the DBMI-CPTI15 Italian catalogue. Both approaches lead to the identification of the M–R pairs (M ≥ 5.5) that can produce the most severe shaking on a site (<i>maximum</i> scenario) or that affect the site most frequently (<i>modal</i> scenario), in terms of median values of the spectral parameters obtained by an empirical ground motion model. The analysis encompasses around 8000 municipalities in Italy, suggesting a valuable approach for defining reference scenario earthquakes for damage and risk analyses, as well as for engineering design purposes.</p>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3828-3845"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/eqe.70059","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145486618","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Automated Recovery of Permanent Displacement in Near-Fault Ground Motions with Fling-Step Effects","authors":"Zhiwang Chang,&nbsp;Wanheng Li,&nbsp;Katsuichiro Goda,&nbsp;Zhenxu Yan","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70048","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;\u0000 \u0000 \u0000 &lt;section&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;p&gt;The fling-step is a result of the permanent tectonic offset of the ground in the near-fault regions of large earthquakes. Ground motions containing the fling typically feature a one-sided pulse in the velocity and a non-zero permanent displacement (PD) at the end of shaking. Generally, the information regarding PD is not available in many worldwide databases due to the presence of various errors, as well as the limitations of current practices in eliminating the errors that are contained in the raw or unprocessed ground motions. The sources of the errors are usually complex and unpredictable, making the work of retrieving PD challenging. To address this issue, an automated baseline correction approach is proposed to recover the PD of interest. Raw ground motions are first assumed as consisting of the low-frequency (LF) and the high-frequency (HF) contents, with the former and the latter containing the PD and the errors, respectively. The LF contents are extracted from the raw motion by using a modified progressive iterative approach, while the HF contents are filtered to remove the error. The corrected ground motions are then obtained by combining the extracted LF and the filtered HF contents. Ninety-eight ground motions are next identified as containing the fling, and used for validation of the proposed approach. It is shown that the obtained PDs agree well with the geodetic data and existing empirical models, demonstrating the desirable performance of the proposed algorithm. Finally, the effects of baseline corrections on the properties of near-fault ground motions are discussed. The proposed approach does not require the selection of any key time instants that have to be specified in previous studies, thereby avoiding the subjectivity and uncertainty involved in performing relevant algorithms. Besides, it enables an objective criterion for characterizing fling-step ground motions, facilitating the quantitative and systematic investigation of PD. Effective correction of raw ground motions recorded in the near-fault areas is crucial for seismological and earthquake engineering in studying slips on the fault plane, assessing the effect of fling on the seismic hazard, and analyzing the seismic response of near-fault or fault-crossing buildings and infrastructure.&lt;/p&gt;\u0000 &lt;/section&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;section&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;h3&gt; Summary&lt;/h3&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;div&gt;\u0000 &lt;ul&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;li&gt;An automated approach is proposed for the baseline correction of near-fault ground motions containing fling-step effects.&lt;/li&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;li&gt;Permanent displacements resulting from the fling-step effects can be recovered from raw ground motions by using a modified progressive approach.&lt;/li&gt;\u0000 \u0000 &lt;li&gt;The derived permanent displacements match reasonably well with the geodeti","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 14","pages":"3685-3704"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145271722","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Wall-to-Floor Connections in a Two-Storey Low-Damage Concrete Wall Test Building","authors":"Qun Yang,&nbsp;Richard S. Henry,&nbsp;Yiqiu Lu,&nbsp;Geoffrey W. Rodgers,&nbsp;Ying Zhou","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70041","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70041","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Prior studies have demonstrated that walls implementing unbonded post-tensioned (PT) tendons can provide an effective solution to achieve a low-damage design objective. The wall-to-floor connection is crucial for the floor to achieve the low-damage performance requirements, and wall-to-floor interaction can also alter the lateral load transfer and overstrength actions that develop in the system. To validate low-damage concepts and connection detailing, a two-storey PT concrete wall building with both flexible and isolated wall-to-floor connection designs was recently subjected to shake-table tests. The design of the flexible connections aimed to transfer lateral loads while accommodating wall uplift with a link slab or composite floor. The isolated connections were designed to decouple the floor from the uplift and rotation of the wall to minimise the damage to the floor while transferring forces in the horizontal direction. The behaviour of these wall-to-floor connections was investigated in this paper with consideration of several performance criteria. Key objectives of this investigation of the two wall-to-floor connections included: (1) summarise the observed performance and damage states; (2) quantify the deformation responses; and (3) investigate the force transfer and acceleration responses. Test results confirmed that both the flexible and isolated connections effectively addressed deformation compatibility in the system. The flexible connection primarily accommodated wall uplift by developing narrow cracks that were distributed within the floor. The isolated connection allowed lateral load transfer without imposing deformations on the floor. The acceleration responses of the two connections exhibited different trends. The integral design of the flexible connection ensured that forces were fully transferred from the wall to the floor with consistent acceleration responses, while the isolated connection partially released the transfer mechanism, with only horizontal and vertical accelerations with low-frequency components transmitted through the connection.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 14","pages":"3666-3684"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145271773","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"On the Response of Seismically Isolated Buildings Equipped with Quasi-Zero Stiffness Device and Tuned Inerter Dampers","authors":"Jun Iba,&nbsp;Kou Miyamoto,&nbsp;Koichi Watanabe,&nbsp;Ken Ishii,&nbsp;Masaru Kikuchi","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70051","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>This study demonstrates that <span>s</span>eismically isolated buildings incorporating a <span>q</span>uasi-zero stiffness device and <span>t</span>uned inerter damper (SQT) system mitigate displacement and acceleration responses, confirming the feasibility and robustness of this passive seismic control strategy. We propose design equations for the tuned inerter damper in an SQT system. To gain fundamental insights, we model the SQT system as a two-degree-of-freedom system and examine it from both theoretical and experimental perspectives. A theoretical solution for sinusoidal excitation is derived to provide a general understanding. A shaking table test validates the theoretical solution and confirms the SQT system's effectiveness in damping the earthquake response. Close agreement between the numerical and experimental results indicates that the theoretical model accurately predicts amplitude-frequency curves. The test results show that the SQT system limits the displacement response to be within the criterion and reduces the acceleration response to levels comparable to conventional seismic isolation under sinusoidal and earthquake excitations.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3811-3827"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145486824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hybrid Testing Based on Multi-Task Restart Loading Technology","authors":"Guoshan Xu,&nbsp;Jiedun Hao,&nbsp;Taida Wang,&nbsp;Lichang Zheng","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70055","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70055","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>The hybrid testing based on restart loading technology (HT-RLT) was developed in recent years, which enables the refined model calculation of the numerical substructure possible for the real-time hybrid testing (RTHT). However, for multiple experimental substructures in the RTHT, the HT-RLT still encounters high requirement of multiple loading equipment and the technical challenges of synchronization among loading equipment. For solving this problem, a hybrid testing based on multi-task overall restart loading technology (HT-MORLT) is proposed in this paper. This method achieves the loading of multiple experimental substructures one by one by means of multiple rounds of overall restart technology on a single agent specimen. Furthermore, for solving the experimental duration problem, a hybrid testing based on multi-task partial restart loading technology (HT-MPRLT) is proposed. This method achieves the loading of multiple experimental substructures one by one by means of multiple rounds of partial restart technology on a single agent specimen. The accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed HT-MORLT and HT-MPRLT are verified through numerical simulations and experiments on one three-story steel frame structure equipped with three viscous dampers. The numerical and experimental results show that both the HT-MORLT and the HT-MPRLT can achieve high-precision loading and reset-waiting operations for multiple experimental substructures. The correlation coefficients under all working conditions are above 96%, indicating that the two methods have high experimental accuracy. Moreover, the results also show that the HT-MPRLT can effectively improve the experimental efficiency by 50% compared to the HT-MORLT.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3795-3810"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145486825","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Adaptive Base Isolation System with Elastomeric Bearings: Multi-Stage Fiber-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings (MS-FRBs) for Tailoring Response to Ground Motion Demands","authors":"Simone Galano,&nbsp;Andrea Calabrese,&nbsp;Dimitrios Konstantinidis,&nbsp;Michalis F. Vassiliou","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70054","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Rubber-based devices have been widely employed in base isolation systems to safeguard essential facilities, demonstrating exceptional effectiveness under extreme lateral demands. Elastomeric isolators are designed to achieve a high vertical-to-horizontal stiffness ratio while maintaining stability at significant lateral displacements. However, isolating lightweight structures with these devices poses challenges, as they require relatively high vertical pressures to sufficiently shift the fundamental vibration period while ensuring stability under large deformations. Moreover, rubber degradation over time necessitates periodic, labor-intensive maintenance, leading to elevated long-term costs associated with bearing replacements when aging impairs performance. This paper introduces a novel elastomeric base isolation concept: the Multi-Stage Fiber-Reinforced Bearing (MS-FRB) system. In this innovative approach, multiple Fiber-Reinforced Bearings (FRBs) operate in series under shear loads, enabling substantial deformation capacity through the sequential engagement of slender rubber-based isolators. This configuration allows precise tuning of the isolation layer's vertical and horizontal stiffnesses to accommodate varying seismic hazard levels, effectively adapting the response of rubber-based bearings to multiple earthquake intensities. A comprehensive parametric three-dimensional finite element analysis is conducted on bearings with diverse geometric and mechanical parameters, evaluating MS-FRB performance under different vertical pressures, bearing shapes, and both uni- and bi-directional shear loading. The system's efficacy is further assessed under realistic earthquake conditions via full 3D finite element models of two case-study structures: low-rise, lightweight reinforced concrete frames with and without masonry infill. Results are compared to fixed-base configurations and those isolated with stable unbonded FRBs, highlighting the MS-FRB's superior ability to protect structures that are typically challenging for conventional rubber-based isolation. This work advances the application of rubber-based devices for seismic protection, particularly in lightweight or heavyweight essential facilities, and provides a proof-of-concept for the design and behavior of MS-FRBs under combined axial and shear loads.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 15","pages":"3768-3794"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-08-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145487103","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Time Delay-Induced Dynamics in Real-Time Hybrid Simulation: Spectral Decomposition and Energy-Based Evaluation","authors":"Liang Huang,&nbsp;Zhiwei Tang,&nbsp;Cheng Chen,&nbsp;Tong Guo","doi":"10.1002/eqe.70046","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.70046","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 \u0000 <section>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Real-time hybrid simulation (RTHS) inherently functions as a feedback system with intrinsic time delays, which can be accurately modeled using a delay differential equation (DDE). The presence of time delays introduces infinite-dimensional dynamics, complicating the analysis of associated errors. While time delay represents a key experimental imperfection, its quantitative influence on structural vibration remains insufficiently understood. To address this gap, we propose a spectral decomposition framework for linear RTHS systems. This method decomposes the delay system into a finite set of single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems, enabling systematic analysis of delay-induced effects, including frequency shifts, spurious mode generation, and energy redistribution. We establish explicit relationships linking time delay to substructural partitioning and excitation characteristics. Based on these insights, we propose three error mitigation strategies: (1) minimizing actuator delay, (2) reducing the experimental substructure ratio, and (3) optimizing spectral alignment between external excitation and system response. Additionally, we introduce two energy-based evaluation metrics—with corresponding tolerances—to quantify the influence of time delay on total energy input and the modal concentration of input energy. The effectiveness of the proposed approach is validated through numerical simulations and physical experiments, offering novel insights into RTHS error mechanisms from modal and energetic perspectives.</p>\u0000 </section>\u0000 \u0000 <section>\u0000 \u0000 <h3> Summary</h3>\u0000 \u0000 <div>\u0000 <ul>\u0000 \u0000 <li>RTHS can be described as a DDE. This study introduced the spectral decomposition method for projecting the dynamic behavior of DDE to individual modes.</li>\u0000 \u0000 <li>From the mode and energy perspective, this method can evaluate and quantify how the energy input caused by time-delay is distributed between the inherent and the spurious modes of test system.</li>\u0000 \u0000 <li>Three ways are effective for error control: (1) reduce the actuator delay, (2) reduce the ratio of experimental substructure, and (3) coordinate spectrums of external excitation and system response.</li>\u0000 </ul>\u0000 </div>\u0000 </section>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":11390,"journal":{"name":"Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics","volume":"54 14","pages":"3651-3665"},"PeriodicalIF":5.0,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145272857","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}