He Jiang , Guangming Zhang , Wanjun Sun , Heng Zhang , Shiwu Zhang , Hui Wang
{"title":"The role of neurotransmitter signaling in colorectal cancer progression: Opportunities for drug repurposing","authors":"He Jiang , Guangming Zhang , Wanjun Sun , Heng Zhang , Shiwu Zhang , Hui Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.01.010","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.01.010","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, with treatment challenges often arising from drug resistance and the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Emerging evidence has repositioned the nervous system from a passive bystander to an active participant in cancer progression. Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, glutamate, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine, are now recognized as crucial regulators of CRC. They directly influence tumor cell proliferation, metastasis, stemness, and therapy resistance by activating their cognate receptors on cancer cells. Furthermore, they modulate the TME by affecting immune cells and stromal components. This intricate crosstalk presents a novel therapeutic avenue. Drug repurposing, the strategy of finding new uses for approved non-cancer drugs, offers a time-efficient and cost-effective path to translate these insights into clinical practice. A growing body of preclinical and clinical studies indicates that various psychoactive agents, including antidepressants, such as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors, antipsychotics, anesthetics, and beta-blockers, exhibit potent anti-CRC effects. This review systematically summarizes the roles of key neurotransmitter systems in CRC pathogenesis and progression. It further explores the promising potential of repurposing existing neuropharmacological agents as novel therapeutic or adjunctive strategies for CRC, highlighting both the compelling opportunities and the challenges within this burgeoning field.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"88 ","pages":"Pages 88-104"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146118120","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Cytokine MicroRNA regulatory networks in colorectal cancer: Contemporary research insights and mechanistic analysis","authors":"Aneth Ochoa Negrete , Vanessa Duran , Natalie Gierat , Adithi Kankanala , Kalyani Narra , Riyaz Basha","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.01.007","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.01.007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Effective CRC screening in the United States has reduced incidence of CRC in populations over 50 years of age. Early-onset CRC is emerging as a significant issue. There is need for better understanding of CRC biology to develop screening techniques, diagnostic markers and novel therapies to improve outcomes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in several cellular processes and function as tumor suppressors and oncogenes. The miRNA/cytokine networks play a critical role in CRC pathogenesis by contributing to an extended period of inflammation which promotes tumorigenesis, tumor progression, and immune evasion. Certain miRNAs such as miR-21 and miR-155 are pro-inflammatory while others like miR-34, miR-143, miR-145 and mi146a are protective against cancer. When using miRNAs as therapeutics in CRC, the therapies rely on miRNA inhibitors to either suppress the miRNAs that have a role in activating oncogenic pathways or replacing miRNAs with mimics that can upregulate tumor suppressors which have been dysregulated due to cancerous mutations. Key immune checkpoint pathways such as PD-1/PD-L1, NF-κB, MAPK, PI3/AKT, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling cascades are regulated by miRNAs. A number of miRNAs are also tested as therapeutic co-targets for boosting immunotherapy effectiveness. Several clinical trials are underway to incorporate miRNAs into CRC screening or detecting early recurrence. Since the administration of targeted treatments can result in an immune-related adverse effect, growing interest has focused on exosomes as alternative carriers for miRNA-based therapeutics. Overall, applications of miRNAs have the potential to improve CRC outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"88 ","pages":"Pages 80-87"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146112413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Lei Wang , Yinghua Li , Zehua He , Zhaoshuai Chen , Wencan Zhang , Chengsheng Wu , Liqiong Xue , Xu Cao
{"title":"Therapeutic targeting of toll-like receptor pathways in tumor-associated macrophages","authors":"Lei Wang , Yinghua Li , Zehua He , Zhaoshuai Chen , Wencan Zhang , Chengsheng Wu , Liqiong Xue , Xu Cao","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.02.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2026.02.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are central regulators of the tumor microenvironment (TME), shaping immune suppression, tumor progression, and therapeutic resistance. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) orchestrate innate immune activation and represent a compelling axis for reprogramming TAMs toward antitumor states. However, the context-dependent nature of TLR signaling, combined with metabolic and tolerogenic constraints in the TME, presents substantial translational barriers. Nevertheless, recent advances including chimeric antigen receptor macrophage (CAR-M) and antibody–TLR agonist conjugates offer new pathways to harness TLR signaling with improved precision and safety. This review summarizes the molecular foundations of TLR signaling in macrophages, dissects the bidirectional consequences of TLR activation within tumors, evaluates current therapeutic platforms, and outlines a translational roadmap to guide the clinical development of TLR-based TAM modulation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"88 ","pages":"Pages 138-151"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146257774","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Zhaojie Lyu , Mancang Gu , Zhengmao Lu , Fulin Lin , Ruiying Zhang , Peixin Dong , Yunmei Liu , Zhaoshen Li , Lei Huang
{"title":"The IL-17 axis in gastric carcinogenesis: From inflammation to oncogenic transformation","authors":"Zhaojie Lyu , Mancang Gu , Zhengmao Lu , Fulin Lin , Ruiying Zhang , Peixin Dong , Yunmei Liu , Zhaoshen Li , Lei Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Gastric cancer (GC) remains a leading cause of global cancer mortality, with <em>Helicobacter pylori</em> (<em>Hp</em>)-induced chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation playing a central pathogenic role. This review consolidates current understanding of interleukin-17 (IL-17) in gastric oncogenesis, delineating its molecular mechanisms, <em>Hp</em>-driven inflammatory pathways, and emerging therapeutic implications. Moving beyond prior analyses of isolated IL-17 signaling components, we systematically evaluate its impact on tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and therapy resistance. Produced primarily by Th17 cells, IL-17 amplifies <em>Hp</em>-triggered inflammation, accelerates tumor growth via NF-κB and STAT3 pathway activation, and promotes malignant transformation and angiogenesis through upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and angiogenic factors. Furthermore, IL-17 remodels the tumor microenvironment (TME), fostering immunosuppression and therapeutic resistance. Paradoxically, IL-17 can also stimulate protective anti-tumor immunity, such as enhancing cytotoxic T-cell responses, suggesting context-dependent therapeutic potential. Epidemiological studies link specific <em>IL-17</em> gene polymorphisms to increased GC susceptibility in <em>Hp</em>-infected individuals. While preclinical models and early clinical data indicate potential benefits of IL-17 pathway inhibition, careful management of associated immunosuppressive risks is essential. This review identifies IL-17 receptor C (IL-17RC) as a promising biomarker candidate for personalized strategies and underscores the therapeutic potential of targeting this axis. By integrating molecular pathogenesis with clinical insights, we clarify IL-17’s dual roles in GC biology and propose a framework for biomarker-guided discovery and multimodal therapeutic approaches to improve outcomes in this aggressive malignancy.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 19-37"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145687270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Jun-ze Tang , Lin Feng , Ting-ting Liu , Xi-zhe Sun
{"title":"Biological macromolecule-driven therapeutics in rheumatoid arthritis: Integrating drug delivery, regenerative medicine, and orthopedic repair","authors":"Jun-ze Tang , Lin Feng , Ting-ting Liu , Xi-zhe Sun","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.11.005","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.11.005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting 0.5–1 % of the global population, leading to joint destruction, disability, and high socioeconomic costs. While conventional therapies like DMARDs and biologics have improved outcomes, limitations persist, including incomplete efficacy, systemic toxicities, and minimal tissue regeneration. This review evaluates the therapeutic potential of biological macromolecules (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, exosomes) in RA management across drug delivery, regenerative medicine, and orthopedic repair, highlighting their inherent advantages over traditional approaches. Macromolecules offer superior biocompatibility and multifunctionality, enabling highly targeted immunomodulation, controlled drug release, and effective tissue regeneration. Preclinical studies using engineered systems such as HA-functionalized nanoparticles and exosome-based scaffolds demonstrate enhanced joint targeting and significant reductions in inflammation. Early clinical data suggest improved patient outcomes, including better remission rates and joint function, when these systems are integrated with existing biologics. Biological macromolecules represent a promising shift toward regenerative RA therapies, addressing unmet needs in disease modification and structural repair. Challenges concerning manufacturing scalability and immunogenicity must be overcome for clinical translation, potentially transforming RA from symptomatic control to curative strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 38-53"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145713720","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Meteorin-like/Metrnl: A pleiotropic cytokine implicated in metabolic, inflammatory and malignant disorders","authors":"Jinlian Li , Pei Ye , Jingli Si , Guangda Xiang","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Metrnl, a secreted protein highly expressed in adipocytes, endothelial cells, muscle cells, and activated macrophages, has been identified as a novel myokine and adipokine. It plays important roles in enhancing white fat browning, improving insulin sensitivity, modulating glucose homeostasis and regulating inflammatory response. These studies suggest that Metrnl could be a promising biomarker and a potential therapeutic target for the related diseases. However, it is worth noting that there are still several controversies persist within its research field: 1. Metrnl concentrations in patients with type 2 diabetes and obesity yield conflicting results, which has raised doubts about the precise role and reliable application of Metrnl as a biomarker in metabolic diseases; 2. Metrnl exhibits a dual nature that is dependent on specific environments, with both anti-inflammatory and proinflammatory functions; 3.Exercise-induced Metrnl can bring about systemic metabolic benefits, but the CD8<sup>+</sup> T cell -derived Metrnl impairs anti-tumor effects, raising a critical concern about the potential effects of exercise-induced Metrnl on cancer progression. Therefore, this review would explore those significant controversies and conflicting results surrounding the function and clinical relevance of Metrnl, and proposes future research directions to utilize the therapeutic potential of Metrnl in metabolic and inflammatory and malignant disorders.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 64-72"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145713698","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Olivia Hooks , Lily T. Childers , Justin T. Childers , Christopher Machado , Colton C. Mowers , Sarfraz Ahmad
{"title":"Role of anti-tumorigenic cytokines in gastrointestinal cancers","authors":"Olivia Hooks , Lily T. Childers , Justin T. Childers , Christopher Machado , Colton C. Mowers , Sarfraz Ahmad","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.004","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers are among the deadliest worldwide, with millions of cases and deaths annually. In the U.S., they account for over 25 % of cancer-related deaths, with colorectal cancer (CRC) leading in incidence and mortality, followed by pancreatic, liver, gastric, and esophageal cancers. These malignancies vary in cellular origin and etiology but share common risk factors, which contribute to chronic inflammation and immune dysfunction, influencing cytokine-driven pathways that shape the tumor environment. This review outlines and discusses the anti-tumorigenic properties of key/select cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-12, IL-15, IL-2, and interferon (IFN)-γ with recent discoveries, therapeutic advancements, and persistent challenges in cytokine biology for GI cancers. We searched with keywords for articles published in the last 20 years. IL-12, IL-15, IL-2, and IFN-γ all regulate or promote natural killer (NK)-cells and T-lymphocytes to suppress GI tumor growth. When deleted in tumor models, there is an increase in other inflammatory mediators that result in cancer progression. The literature supports an inverse relationship between low cytokine levels and advanced-stage disease. While the literature suggests these cytokines are not as beneficial or potentially harmful as single agents, when used in GI cancer treatment as an adjuvant in combination therapies or with innovative delivery methods, there is statistically significant therapeutic efficacy with improved clinical outcomes, median survival, and tumor suppression. The applicability of anti-tumorigenic cytokines (IL-12, IL-15, IL-2, and IFN-γ) as biomarkers of diagnosis and indicators of prognosis is being recognized with emphasis on their capabilities as therapeutic targets and adjuvant therapies in GI cancers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 54-63"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145713693","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Missing the pattern: Pathogenic structural considerations in the maternal immune signature and autism risk","authors":"Isaac S.B. Russell , Melissa L. Perreault","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.011","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.12.011","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 124-127"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145880251","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Spyridoula D. Katsarou , Maria Panagopoulou , Stavroula Baritaki
{"title":"Inflammation and Type 1 interferon signaling in pancreatic adenocarcinoma: Insights into inflammasome driven crosstalk and therapeutic advances","authors":"Spyridoula D. Katsarou , Maria Panagopoulou , Stavroula Baritaki","doi":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.11.006","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.cytogfr.2025.11.006","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains one of the most aggressive and lethal malignancies, characterized by a profoundly immunosuppressive and inflammatory tumor microenvironment (TME). Chronic pancreatic inflammation not only drives tumor initiation and progression but also underpins therapeutic resistance. Among the key mediators of this inflammatory network, the traditionally recognized for their roles in antiviral defense, type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling and activation of multiprotein complexes, known as inflammasomes, have emerged as pivotal regulators of immune dynamics within PDAC. Under chronic immune stimulation, dysregulation of these pathways paradoxically promotes a pro-tumorigenic inflammatory milieu, rather than controlling immune defense, leading eventually to tumor growth by fostering immune evasion, fibrosis, and resistance to cytotoxic therapies. In this mini review, we summarize recent advances elucidating the interplay between chronic inflammation, IFN-I signaling, and inflammasome activity in PDAC pathophysiology. We highlight how aberrant crosstalk between these pathways remodels the TME, with focus on immune-TME, to support tumor survival and progression. Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at disrupting this IFN-I–inflammasome axis to reinvigorate anti-tumor immunity and enhance treatment efficacy. By integrating current evidence, this review provides new insights into inflammation-driven immune dysregulation in PDAC and underscores the potential of targeting inflammatory signaling as a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention. Schematic illustration of the dysregulated crosstalk between chronic Inflammation, type I Interferon, and inflammasome Signaling that drives Immune suppression and tumor progression in PDAC.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":11132,"journal":{"name":"Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews","volume":"87 ","pages":"Pages 2-9"},"PeriodicalIF":11.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145647767","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}