Measurement: Energy最新文献

{"title":"A bidirectional diode-clamp circuit paradigm for time-resolved measurement of electrical short-circuits","authors":"Alex Mwololo Kimuya, Dickson Mwenda Kinyua","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100114","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100114","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Conventional electrical fault models treat short-circuits as destructive singularities requiring instantaneous interruption, relying on static threshold assumptions that fail to capture time-evolving fault dynamics. The classical notion-that resistance collapses to zero, voltage drops to zero, and current diverges to infinity-is inconsistent with empirical observations. This paper demonstrates a diode-clamped, Arduino-based circuit design for sustained low-voltage short-circuit characterization across multiple sampling intervals. Using an acquisition system sampling at <span><math><mrow><mn>10</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span>, <span><math><mrow><mn>50</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span>, and <span><math><mrow><mn>100</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span> intervals over durations from <span><math><mrow><mn>3</mn></mrow></math></span> minutes to <span><math><mrow><mn>15</mn></mrow></math></span> minutes with input voltages of <span><math><mrow><mn>2.5</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span>, <span><math><mrow><mn>5.0</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>10.0</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span>, the results demonstrate that under extreme short-circuit conditions, all fault variables remain bounded and measurable: voltages settle to non-zero floors <span><math><mrow><msub><mi>V</mi><mrow><mi>min</mi><mspace></mspace></mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>0.073</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span> at <span><math><mrow><mn>2.5</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><msub><mi>V</mi><mrow><mi>min</mi><mspace></mspace></mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>0.069</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span> at <span><math><mrow><mn>5.0</mn><mi>V</mi></mrow></math></span>; currents limit to finite maxima <span><math><mrow><msub><mi>I</mi><mi>max</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>13.01</mn><mi>A</mi></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>13.03</mn><mi>A</mi></mrow></math></span>; resistances decay exponentially to finite minima <span><math><mrow><msubsup><mi>R</mi><mi>c</mi><mrow><mi>min</mi><mspace></mspace></mrow></msubsup><mo>=</mo><mn>5.61</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>Ω</mi></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>5.30</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>Ω</mi></mrow></math></span>. The <span><math><mrow><mn>10</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span> sampling resolution captured transient dynamics with highest fidelity, while the <span><math><mrow><mn>50</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>100</mn><mi>m</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></math></span> resolutions smoothed rapid features while still characterizing the governed steady state. Multi-sampling-rate consistency validates capture of physical processes without sampling artifacts. Novel diagnostics include the Sustained-to-Capacitive Energy Ratio (on the order of <span><math><mrow><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>12</mn></msup></mrow></math></span>), indicating that fault energy originates from sustained dynamics rather than parasitic capacitance dischar","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"11 ","pages":"Article 100114"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148854373","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A review of electrical sensor based phase fraction measurement of gas–liquid flows","authors":"Danmeng Li ,&nbsp;Zixin Wu ,&nbsp;Jingyu Xu ,&nbsp;Sichen Du ,&nbsp;Haitao He ,&nbsp;Yi Li","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100104","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100104","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate phase fraction measurement is a critical component in the extraction and processing of oil and gas resources, ensuring operational safety, pipeline integrity, and production optimization. Traditional offline measurement techniques are increasingly inadequate for the highly unsteady and complex conditions of modern production. Consequently, electrical-based sensor technologies — leveraging contrasts in fluid conductivity and dielectric constants — have emerged as the industry standard due to their rapid response, structural simplicity, and online monitoring capabilities. This paper systematically reviews the advancements in electrical-based phase fraction measurement for gas–liquid two-phase flows over the past decade. It critically evaluates the fundamental principles, technical characteristics, application envelopes, and inherent limitations of five key modalities: microwave sensors, capacitive sensors, resistance sensors and wire-mesh sensors. Furthermore, the review highlights the transformative integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, alongside multi-modal sensor fusion. These data-driven approaches demonstrate exceptional potential in overcoming traditional measurement bottlenecks, such as flow-regime dependency and dynamic variations in fluid properties like salinity. Finally, the paper outlines future research trajectories, emphasizing the necessity of robust multi-modal fusion, in-situ self-calibration, and physically interpretable AI models to achieve reliable, long-term online monitoring in harsh industrial environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"10 ","pages":"Article 100104"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148177946","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Decoding commercial lithium-ion battery ageing via operando optical fiber multi-parameter sensing","authors":"Jiahao Dong ,&nbsp;Junjie Mo ,&nbsp;Xipei Pang ,&nbsp;Fu Liu ,&nbsp;Xile Han ,&nbsp;Tuan Guo","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100106","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100106","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Operando multi-parameter monitoring in lithium-ion batteries is essential for accurate state of health estimation, performance enhancement, and sustainable reuse. However, current sensing techniques struggle to simultaneously track key electrochemical parameters during battery operation. To address this limitation, this study introduces an operando diagnostic approach based on a microstructured optical fiber sensing system, designed to enable multimodal monitoring within commercial 18650 lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄, LFP) cells. By incorporating a hybrid sensor combining a tilted fiber Bragg grating and a Fabry-Pérot interferometer, simultaneous monitoring of local electrolyte wetting conditions near the implanted fiber, internal pressure, and temperature is achieved. Experiments conducted on commercial 18650 LFP cells successfully captured dynamic variations in internal air pressure, electrolyte state, and temperature during operation. The results indicate that the battery's internal air pressure and electrolyte level during cycling are significantly correlated with the progression of capacity decay.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"10 ","pages":"Article 100106"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148177945","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Measurement-based energy modeling and reliability assessment of a hybrid PV–battery–diesel pumping system under probabilistic rainfall extremes","authors":"Miftahul Fadillah ,&nbsp;Erkata Yandri ,&nbsp;Rienni Manihuruk ,&nbsp;Rudi Haryanto Simanjuntak ,&nbsp;Sumardi ,&nbsp;Ratna Ariati","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100105","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100105","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Dewatering is one of the most critical tasks in the operation of tropical open-pit coal mining, where highly variable rainfall threatens operational continuity, safety, and energy efficiency. The present study proposes a measurement-based framework for assessing dewatering energy demand under rainfall uncertainty and for evaluating a hybrid PV–battery–diesel energy system supporting sump dewatering operations. The methodology integrates probabilistic rainfall projection, pumping energy modeling, HOMER-based system optimization, multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM), and Monte Carlo simulation to assess system performance and resilience. Four rainfall-driven load scenarios (P20–P95) are defined to represent progressively increasing hydrological stress. Results indicate that during low-to-moderate rainfall conditions, photovoltaic (PV) generation supplies a substantial portion of the pumping energy demand, while diesel backup remains necessary during high and extreme rainfall periods to ensure uninterrupted operation. Under the high rainfall scenario (P80), the renewable fraction reaches 81.6%, accompanied by an 80.5% reduction in diesel fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions relative to the diesel-only baseline. Although aggressive renewable penetration reduces fuel dependency, extreme rainfall scenarios exhibit diminishing economic returns due to increased capital requirements, highlighting important techno-economic trade-offs. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate that the selected hybrid configuration maintains a low probability of flooding under stochastic rainfall variability, confirming its operational reliability. Overall, the proposed framework provides an energy-efficient and practical solution for sump dewatering in tropical open-pit mining environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"10 ","pages":"Article 100105"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148177947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Flap-wise vibration frequency measurement of wind turbine blades through moiré pattern analysis","authors":"Yi-Hsiang Liao ,&nbsp;Lijuan Wang ,&nbsp;Yong Yan","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100107","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100107","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate vibration measurement of blades is essential for monitoring wind turbines to reduce downtime and ensure operational safety in wind farms. Although imaging-based methods such as digital image correlation and photogrammetry have been applied to achieve non-contact vibration measurement of wind turbine blades, these methods require two or more cameras, complex synchronisation and calibration. This paper proposes a single camera-based approach to measure the vibration frequency in flap-wise direction (i.e. the direction perpendicular to the rotor disk plane) by analysing the moiré pattern generated by a marker on a blade. Experiments were conducted on a laboratory test rig to assess the proposed measurement method for different camera distances, spatial periods of marker pattern, camera pitch and yaw angles, and vibration frequencies. The results show that the moiré pattern analysis method is able to accurately determine the vibration frequency up to 30 Hz with a camera frame rate of 60 fps, compared with the reference vibration frequency obtained from a commercial accelerometer. The developed method provides a feasible and robust way for measuring flap-wise vibration frequency of wind turbine blades under laboratory conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"10 ","pages":"Article 100107"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231219","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Near-nozzle atomization characteristics of GTL-Jet A-1 fuel blends at combustor relevant conditions using shadowgraph measurements","authors":"Kumaran Kannaiyan","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100084","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100084","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To achieve the goal of sustainable aviation, the aviation industry is considering blends of conventional and alternative jet fuels to achieve clean combustion. To this end, it is essential to understand the atomization characteristics of jet fuel blends better to gain additional insights into their ignition and combustion phenomena. Thus, this study explores the atomization characteristics of alternative-conventional jet fuel blends, <em>i.e.,</em> blends of jet fuel derived from natural gas (Gas-To-Liquid, GTL) with Jet A-1 fuels at varying proportions (0, 50 %, 75%, and 100%) under non-reacting conditions at elevated ambient pressures (100 and 500 kPa) and ambient temperatures (300 and 350 K). Towards this goal, a simplex atomizer is used to experimentally investigate the macroscopic atomization characteristics, such as spray cone angle, sheet dynamics and breakup distance, and axial velocity variation at two pressure differentials across the atomizer (300 and 900 kPa). The results demonstrate that the influence of elevated ambient temperature has a stronger correlation with the near-nozzle atomization characteristics. For the type of nozzle studied, the far-field cone angle of jet fuel blends decreased from 70 ° to 60 ° with the increase in ambient gas pressure from 100 to 500 kPa. Under the conditions studied, the blend of 50% GTL-50%Jet A-1 exhibited an earlier onset of liquid-sheet instability, characterized using the second-order statistical moment, when compared to GTL and Jet A-1 fuels. Furthermore, the 50% GTL-50%Jet A-1 blend exhibited shorter liquid-sheet breakup distance than that of 75% GTL-25%Jet A-1 blend. The results presented here will assist in gaining additional insights into their ignition and combustion performance at relevant conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"9 ","pages":"Article 100084"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145840153","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimized SVM and feature selection for fault detection and classification in GFM-IBR system","authors":"Armin Ahmadi Bouzandani ,&nbsp;Behrooz Taheri ,&nbsp;Seyed Amir Hosseini","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100081","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100081","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Due to the increasing integration of new energy sources and the critical need for power grid stability, accurate fault detection and classification in power systems has become paramount. Therefore, this paper presents a new, optimized framework for fault detection in Grid-Forming Inverter-Based Resource (GFM-IBR) power systems. This framework is based on frequency feature extraction using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and a Support Vector Machine (SVM) model. First, we sample the voltage and current signals from the IBR side. Then, the angle and phase values of these signals are extracted using FFT. The average angle and phase values obtained within the 10-ms period after a fault in each phase are then designated as the main features. The distinctive aspect of this study is its dual optimization approach. This involves both adjusting the parameters of the SVM model and optimally selecting features using several evolutionary and metaheuristic algorithms, specifically HHO, PSO, GA, GWO, WOA, GOA, DO, and AEO. The method presented in this paper was tested on a power system connected to a GFM-IBR, simulated in PSCAD software. The data generated in PSCAD was then transferred to a Google Colab environment for feature extraction and SVM model training.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"9 ","pages":"Article 100081"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145685438","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Oxygen enrichment studies in hydrogen-natural gas burner: A pilot-scale study on emissions and thermal performance","authors":"Nidhin Thekkedath Madhu ,&nbsp;Martin Adendorff ,&nbsp;Kristina Mabic ,&nbsp;Esin Iplik ,&nbsp;Sven Eckart ,&nbsp;Hartmut Krause","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100085","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100085","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Decarbonising high-temperature industrial furnaces requires efficient and low-emission combustion strategies. Hydrogen and oxygen enhanced combustion (OEC) are promising alternatives to conventional air-fuel systems, but their combined impact on heat transfer, efficiency, and NOx emissions under practical operating conditions remains underexplored. This study explores the combustion behaviour of a commercial 200 kW burner operating with hydrogen, natural gas, and their blend under varying oxidizer oxygen concentrations, ranging from air-fuel combustion (21 % O₂) to pure oxyfuel combustion (100 % O₂). Conducted at pilot-scale, the research aims to understand how fuel composition and oxygen enrichment influence NOx emissions, heat transfer, wall temperature distribution, and flue gas energy losses. The results reveal that oxygen enrichment plays a dominant role in shaping combustion performance, while the choice of fuel (whether hydrogen, natural gas, or a blend) has a comparatively minor effect. Oxygen enrichment significantly improved heat transfer and reduced flue gas losses, resulting in thermal efficiency increase from ∼45 % in air-fuel to ∼80 % in oxyfuel combustion. Burner configuration such as delayed combustion and flameless combustion strongly influenced temperature uniformity and NOx emissions, where flameless configuration resulted in enhanced mixing, reduced thermal stratification and lower NOx compared to simple delayed combustion. Under delayed and flameless oxyfuel conditions, NOx emissions dropped below 2 mg/MJ for both fuels. With this study, a reduction of ∼90 % in NOx emission while moving from air-fuel to oxyfuel condition was observed for natural gas and hydrogen. Interestingly, at flameless combustion operation, hydrogen showed lower NOx emission than natural gas. Constant-temperature studies confirmed that nitrogen availability, rather than flame temperature, dominated NOx formation under flameless conditions. These findings highlight the potential of oxyfuel and OEC to deliver cleaner and more energy-efficient operation in industrial furnaces, regardless of fuel composition. The insights gained are particularly relevant for industries transitioning toward hydrogen-based energy systems and seeking to meet decarbonisation, NOx emission and efficiency targets.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"9 ","pages":"Article 100085"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145924720","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"ADAPTIVE AI scheduling of building HVAC to charge phase change thermal batteries with elevator regenerative braking heat","authors":"Rajagopal M ,&nbsp;Shashank R ,&nbsp;Shreeshanth R","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100079","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2025.100079","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>High-rise buildings consume significant energy due to intensive HVAC and elevator operations. This study proposes an adaptive energy management framework that captures regenerative braking heat from elevators to charge Phase-Change Thermal Batteries (PCTBs), which are subsequently used to assist HVAC operations. A hybrid co-simulation platform integrating TRNSYS, MATLAB/Simulink, and Python (TensorFlow) was developed to couple building thermal dynamics, elevator regenerative heat recovery, and AI-based HVAC scheduling. The proposed reinforcement learning (RL)–driven scheduler dynamically coordinates HVAC power modulation, PCTB charging/discharging cycles, and occupancy-based thermal demand in response to real-time weather and elevator activity. Simulation results demonstrate that the adaptive AI scheduler reduces HVAC energy consumption by up to 18 % and peak load by 12 %, while maintaining indoor comfort within ASHRAE-55 standards. Regenerative heat utilization efficiency exceeded 75 %, confirming effective capture and reuse of elevator braking energy. Extended seven-day simulations further validated system robustness and consistent performance under varying occupancy and climatic conditions. Economic assessment indicates a payback period of 5–7 years, emphasizing the financial viability of the proposed integration. By uniting regenerative energy recovery, latent thermal storage, and adaptive AI control, this research establishes a scalable framework for intelligent HVAC operation in smart buildings. The findings highlight substantial potential for achieving energy circularity, reduced carbon emissions, and enhanced sustainability in high-rise urban environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"9 ","pages":"Article 100079"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145584459","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Energy efficiency and cooling performance of A/C systems in Saudi Arabia's hot climate: A case study","authors":"Emad Alrwishdi ,&nbsp;Abdulrahman AlKassem ,&nbsp;Saleh Al Ahmadi ,&nbsp;Abdussamad Sadis ,&nbsp;Azeddine Draou ,&nbsp;Mohamed Ouzzane ,&nbsp;Mahmoud Bady","doi":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100086","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.meaene.2026.100086","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In Saudi Arabia's hyper-arid Madinah region, where summer temperatures exceed 40 °C, air conditioning (AC) systems consume substantial energy. This study evaluates a 3.52 kW conventional fixed-speed AC system during June–August 2024 to quantify its performance and propose energy-efficient alternatives. Using high-frequency measurements and uncertainty analysis, the system achieved a cooling capacity (Q_evap) of 2003.1–2580.4 W, power consumption of 840.7–1096.3 W, and a coefficient of performance (COP) of 2.23–2.39, with uncertainties of 4.04–5.06 %. These results reveal inefficiencies compared to variable-speed systems, with a COP ranging from 3.0 to 4.5. Suboptimal user practices increased power consumption to 3.4–6.6 kW, with annual maintenance costs of SAR 1625. Advanced technologies could reduce energy use by 20–80 %, supporting Saudi Arabia's sustainability goals under Vision 2030. The novelty of this work lies in its integrative, multifaceted approach, which establishes the first high-resolution performance baseline for Madinah and provides a holistic framework—encompassing technical, economic, environmental, and behavioral factors—to guide cooling optimization policy and technology adoption in extreme climates.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100897,"journal":{"name":"Measurement: Energy","volume":"9 ","pages":"Article 100086"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146037466","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}