IET Blockchain最新文献

{"title":"ECC-PoARV: A Lightweight Blockchain Architecture With Rotational Validation for Scalable IoT Networks","authors":"Natraj N. A.,&nbsp;Midhunchakkaravarthy J. J.,&nbsp;Brojo Kishore Mishra","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70054","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The wide adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has created an urgent need for secure, scalable data management solutions that can operate within the constraints of resource-limited hardware. While blockchain technology offers compelling security through decentralisation, traditional consensus mechanisms like Proof-of-Work (PoW) are fundamentally incompatible with IoT environments due to excessive energy consumption and low throughput. This article introduces ECC-PoARV, a novel blockchain architecture combining elliptic curve cryptography with proof-of-authority using rotational validation, designed specifically for the demands of modern IoT networks. Through a comprehensive simulation-based evaluation of a 100-node network, our architecture demonstrated a sustained throughput of 140 transactions per second (TPS) with a deterministic 0.05-second finality time. These results represent a 14-fold throughput improvement and a staggering &gt;5000-fold latency reduction compared to Proof-of-Work's (PoW) probabilistic finality of ∼283 s, all while consuming over 95% less energy per transaction. Critically, unlike standard Proof-of-Authority systems that can suffer from centralisation risks, our rotational validation mechanism ensures equitable validator participation and enhances fault tolerance. These findings establish Elliptic Curve Cryptography—Proof-of-Authority based on Rotational Validation (ECC-PoARV) as a practically deployable solution that successfully bridges the performance gap between insecure centralised systems and computationally intensive blockchains, providing a viable blueprint for next-generation IoT security.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70054","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994163","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"ECC-PoARV: A Lightweight Blockchain Architecture With Rotational Validation for Scalable IoT Networks","authors":"Natraj N. A.,&nbsp;Midhunchakkaravarthy J. J.,&nbsp;Brojo Kishore Mishra","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70054","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70054","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The wide adoption of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has created an urgent need for secure, scalable data management solutions that can operate within the constraints of resource-limited hardware. While blockchain technology offers compelling security through decentralisation, traditional consensus mechanisms like Proof-of-Work (PoW) are fundamentally incompatible with IoT environments due to excessive energy consumption and low throughput. This article introduces ECC-PoARV, a novel blockchain architecture combining elliptic curve cryptography with proof-of-authority using rotational validation, designed specifically for the demands of modern IoT networks. Through a comprehensive simulation-based evaluation of a 100-node network, our architecture demonstrated a sustained throughput of 140 transactions per second (TPS) with a deterministic 0.05-second finality time. These results represent a 14-fold throughput improvement and a staggering &gt;5000-fold latency reduction compared to Proof-of-Work's (PoW) probabilistic finality of ∼283 s, all while consuming over 95% less energy per transaction. Critically, unlike standard Proof-of-Authority systems that can suffer from centralisation risks, our rotational validation mechanism ensures equitable validator participation and enhances fault tolerance. These findings establish Elliptic Curve Cryptography—Proof-of-Authority based on Rotational Validation (ECC-PoARV) as a practically deployable solution that successfully bridges the performance gap between insecure centralised systems and computationally intensive blockchains, providing a viable blueprint for next-generation IoT security.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70054","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Deployment Feasibility Framework for Peer-to-Peer Community-Level Green Energy Markets: A Comprehensive Analysis of Technical, Policy, and Social Dimensions","authors":"Pfano Nemakonde,&nbsp;Mukovhe Ratshitanga,&nbsp;Fhulufhelo Nemangwele","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70051","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The global energy transition towards decarbonised, distributed systems has sparked significant academic interest in combining artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain technologies for peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading. However, a conspicuous chasm exists between theoretical research and practical deployment, with few scalable, user-adopted P2P energy markets successfully implemented. This paper synthesises extensive research to identify and address the “Deployment Feasibility Gap” – a multifaceted barrier comprising data science integrity issues, on-chain engineering challenges, policy constraints, and social acceptance obstacles. We introduce the deployment feasibility framework (DFF), a holistic blueprint that integrates four foundational pillars: data-to-deployment fidelity, systematically optimised prediction, practical on-chain implementation, and AI-driven user experience. The framework addresses critical policy frameworks, regulatory barriers, and social acceptance challenges for implementing P2P community-level green energy markets, particularly in developing countries like South Africa. Our analysis reveals that while AI-blockchain synergy shows promise in controlled environments, deployment requires addressing real-time feature availability constraints, blockchain scalability limitations, energy justice concerns, and severe user experience barriers that prevent mainstream adoption. The DFF provides a critical roadmap for developing robust, scalable, and user-centric P2P energy markets capable of addressing real-world energy challenges, particularly in crisis-affected regions where load-shedding has created urgent demand for decentralised energy solutions. To ensure practical viability, the framework identifies critical design benchmarks aimed at achieving 95% forecast accuracy for microgrid stability, sub-second latency for market clearing, and an aspirational 30% reduction in energy costs for participating communities.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70051","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994177","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Deployment Feasibility Framework for Peer-to-Peer Community-Level Green Energy Markets: A Comprehensive Analysis of Technical, Policy, and Social Dimensions","authors":"Pfano Nemakonde,&nbsp;Mukovhe Ratshitanga,&nbsp;Fhulufhelo Nemangwele","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70051","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70051","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The global energy transition towards decarbonised, distributed systems has sparked significant academic interest in combining artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain technologies for peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading. However, a conspicuous chasm exists between theoretical research and practical deployment, with few scalable, user-adopted P2P energy markets successfully implemented. This paper synthesises extensive research to identify and address the “Deployment Feasibility Gap” – a multifaceted barrier comprising data science integrity issues, on-chain engineering challenges, policy constraints, and social acceptance obstacles. We introduce the deployment feasibility framework (DFF), a holistic blueprint that integrates four foundational pillars: data-to-deployment fidelity, systematically optimised prediction, practical on-chain implementation, and AI-driven user experience. The framework addresses critical policy frameworks, regulatory barriers, and social acceptance challenges for implementing P2P community-level green energy markets, particularly in developing countries like South Africa. Our analysis reveals that while AI-blockchain synergy shows promise in controlled environments, deployment requires addressing real-time feature availability constraints, blockchain scalability limitations, energy justice concerns, and severe user experience barriers that prevent mainstream adoption. The DFF provides a critical roadmap for developing robust, scalable, and user-centric P2P energy markets capable of addressing real-world energy challenges, particularly in crisis-affected regions where load-shedding has created urgent demand for decentralised energy solutions. To ensure practical viability, the framework identifies critical design benchmarks aimed at achieving 95% forecast accuracy for microgrid stability, sub-second latency for market clearing, and an aspirational 30% reduction in energy costs for participating communities.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70051","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994176","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Erasure-Coded Sharding and Proof-of-Storage for Practical Blockchain Trilemma Balance","authors":"Saha Reno,&nbsp;Koushik Roy,&nbsp;G M Abdullah Al Kafi,&nbsp;Khandakar Md Shafin","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70052","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70052","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The simultaneous achievement of scalability, security and decentralisation remains an open problem for distributed ledger technologies. This paper introduces InternxtChain, a novel framework leveraging Internxt's decentralised storage infrastructure with zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) and sharded proof-of-storage (SPoS) consensus. Specifically, erasure-coded sharding ensures data availability and fault tolerance by splitting files into encoded fragments distributed across nodes; BLS-381 aggregated signatures enable efficient consensus by compressing multiple signatures into a single short proof; and zk-SNARK audits provide tamper-evident storage verification without revealing user data. InternxtChain addresses this challenge through three synergistic mechanisms: (i) erasure-coded sharding with (6,3) Reed–Solomon encoding, (ii) zk-SNARKs for storage auditability and (iii) an SPoS consensus based on BLS-381 aggregated signatures. Experimental evaluation on a testbed of 2048 nodes across 16 geographic regions shows that InternxtChain processes 2800 transactions per second (TPS) with a median latency of 420 ms, while maintaining 99.9% data integrity under up to 30% Byzantine nodes. These results establish a practical path toward harmonising Web3 principles with real-world throughput, cost and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) auditability requirements.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70052","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148752885","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Erasure-Coded Sharding and Proof-of-Storage for Practical Blockchain Trilemma Balance","authors":"Saha Reno,&nbsp;Koushik Roy,&nbsp;G M Abdullah Al Kafi,&nbsp;Khandakar Md Shafin","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70052","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70052","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The simultaneous achievement of scalability, security and decentralisation remains an open problem for distributed ledger technologies. This paper introduces InternxtChain, a novel framework leveraging Internxt's decentralised storage infrastructure with zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) and sharded proof-of-storage (SPoS) consensus. Specifically, erasure-coded sharding ensures data availability and fault tolerance by splitting files into encoded fragments distributed across nodes; BLS-381 aggregated signatures enable efficient consensus by compressing multiple signatures into a single short proof; and zk-SNARK audits provide tamper-evident storage verification without revealing user data. InternxtChain addresses this challenge through three synergistic mechanisms: (i) erasure-coded sharding with (6,3) Reed–Solomon encoding, (ii) zk-SNARKs for storage auditability and (iii) an SPoS consensus based on BLS-381 aggregated signatures. Experimental evaluation on a testbed of 2048 nodes across 16 geographic regions shows that InternxtChain processes 2800 transactions per second (TPS) with a median latency of 420 ms, while maintaining 99.9% data integrity under up to 30% Byzantine nodes. These results establish a practical path toward harmonising Web3 principles with real-world throughput, cost and General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) auditability requirements.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-08-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70052","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148752416","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Why No Consensus on Consensus? A Deep Dive Into Blockchain Consensus Protocols","authors":"Mohammad Pishdar,&nbsp;Jawad Manzoor","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70050","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Blockchain technology has emerged as a foundational infrastructure for decentralized applications, where consensus protocols play a critical role in ensuring security, consistency and trust among distributed participants. This paper presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of nine widely adopted consensus protocols across public (proof of work [PoW], proof of stake [PoS], delegated proof of stake [DPoS]) and private (practical Byzantine fault tolerance [PBFT, Raft, Kafka, proof of elapsed time [PoET], yet another consensus [YAC], Paxos) blockchain systems. Unlike prior surveys, this work integrates workflow-level operational modelling, quantitative performance comparison and application-driven decision support within a unified analytical framework. Our analysis shows that PoW achieves strong decentralization at 3–15 transactions per second (TPS) with 10–60 min finality, whereas PoS improves throughput to tens to thousands of TPS with seconds-to-minutes finality while reducing energy consumption by approximately 99%. Private blockchain protocols such as PBFT and Kafka achieve sub-second latency and throughput exceeding 10,000 TPS by trading off decentralization for performance and control. Furthermore, we develop a decision-support framework that maps consensus mechanisms to application requirements and provides a critical synthesis of security risks, scalability limitations, and emerging solutions. The findings highlight that no single protocol satisfies all design goals, reinforcing the necessity of context-aware consensus selection.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70050","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994621","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Why No Consensus on Consensus? A Deep Dive Into Blockchain Consensus Protocols","authors":"Mohammad Pishdar,&nbsp;Jawad Manzoor","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70050","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70050","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Blockchain technology has emerged as a foundational infrastructure for decentralized applications, where consensus protocols play a critical role in ensuring security, consistency and trust among distributed participants. This paper presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of nine widely adopted consensus protocols across public (proof of work [PoW], proof of stake [PoS], delegated proof of stake [DPoS]) and private (practical Byzantine fault tolerance [PBFT, Raft, Kafka, proof of elapsed time [PoET], yet another consensus [YAC], Paxos) blockchain systems. Unlike prior surveys, this work integrates workflow-level operational modelling, quantitative performance comparison and application-driven decision support within a unified analytical framework. Our analysis shows that PoW achieves strong decentralization at 3–15 transactions per second (TPS) with 10–60 min finality, whereas PoS improves throughput to tens to thousands of TPS with seconds-to-minutes finality while reducing energy consumption by approximately 99%. Private blockchain protocols such as PBFT and Kafka achieve sub-second latency and throughput exceeding 10,000 TPS by trading off decentralization for performance and control. Furthermore, we develop a decision-support framework that maps consensus mechanisms to application requirements and provides a critical synthesis of security risks, scalability limitations, and emerging solutions. The findings highlight that no single protocol satisfies all design goals, reinforcing the necessity of context-aware consensus selection.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70050","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148994620","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrating Blockchain and Semantic Technologies for Secure and Compliant Land Ownership Transfers","authors":"Minh Duc Nguyen","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70053","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70053","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The management of land ownership transfers faces persistent challenges due to vulnerabilities in traditional systems, including fraud, data manipulation and inefficiencies in verifying legal and procedural compliance. While blockchain technology offers decentralised security and immutability, it alone cannot address the complex legal, regulatory and semantic requirements inherent in land governance. This paper presents SLOTChain (semantic land ownership transfer chain), an integrated system that combines blockchain technology, ontology-based semantic modelling and rule-based reasoning to enable transparent, secure and legally compliant land ownership transfers. SLOTChain features a three-layered architecture: a knowledge layer leveraging the LandOn ontology and semantic web rule language rules for legal validation, a smart contract layer for automating technical execution and a blockchain layer for immutable and decentralised record-keeping. Deployed on the Hyperledger Fabric framework, SLOTChain demonstrated scalability and efficiency in experimental evaluations, with validated blockchain transactions achieving peak throughput of approximately 1000 transactions per second, while rejected transactions that bypassed blockchain commitment reached up to 1400 transactions per second with lower latency. By bridging technological robustness with legal assurance, SLOTChain offers a comprehensive, automated solution for modernising land management practices across public and private sectors. Future developments will focus on enhancing semantic reasoning capabilities, expanding legal coverage and evolving SLOTChain into a comprehensive land management platform.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-07-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70053","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148754275","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrating Blockchain and Semantic Technologies for Secure and Compliant Land Ownership Transfers","authors":"Minh Duc Nguyen","doi":"10.1049/blc2.70053","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1049/blc2.70053","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The management of land ownership transfers faces persistent challenges due to vulnerabilities in traditional systems, including fraud, data manipulation and inefficiencies in verifying legal and procedural compliance. While blockchain technology offers decentralised security and immutability, it alone cannot address the complex legal, regulatory and semantic requirements inherent in land governance. This paper presents SLOTChain (semantic land ownership transfer chain), an integrated system that combines blockchain technology, ontology-based semantic modelling and rule-based reasoning to enable transparent, secure and legally compliant land ownership transfers. SLOTChain features a three-layered architecture: a knowledge layer leveraging the LandOn ontology and semantic web rule language rules for legal validation, a smart contract layer for automating technical execution and a blockchain layer for immutable and decentralised record-keeping. Deployed on the Hyperledger Fabric framework, SLOTChain demonstrated scalability and efficiency in experimental evaluations, with validated blockchain transactions achieving peak throughput of approximately 1000 transactions per second, while rejected transactions that bypassed blockchain commitment reached up to 1400 transactions per second with lower latency. By bridging technological robustness with legal assurance, SLOTChain offers a comprehensive, automated solution for modernising land management practices across public and private sectors. Future developments will focus on enhancing semantic reasoning capabilities, expanding legal coverage and evolving SLOTChain into a comprehensive land management platform.</p>","PeriodicalId":100650,"journal":{"name":"IET Blockchain","volume":"6 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-07-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/blc2.70053","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148754278","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}