Guest Editorial: Blockchain Evolution: Architecture and Applications

As a disruptive technology, blockchain has attracted widespread attention from academia and industry. However, current blockchain technologies still suffer from many severe problems, for example, insufficient trust and security, vulnerability to attacks, low efficiency, poor scalability, low throughput, high energy consumption, privacy leakage, and the inability to remove dishonest or harmful information once it has been recorded. Hence, blockchain evolution is urgently demanded, including its fundamental architecture, consensus mechanism, and new applications. The recent advances in artificial intelligence have offered opportunities to detect anomalies and optimise resources. The evolution of blockchain in architecture, intelligence, and consensus protocol will further extend its applications to broader fields. The current special issue is focused on research ideas, articles and experimental studies related to ‘Blockchain Evolution: Architecture and Applications’ for learning, analysing, and forecasting the various aspects of blockchain.

In this special issue, we have received 12 papers, all of which underwent peer review. Of the 12 originally submitted papers, three have been accepted and nine have been ‘rejected with referral,’ that is, they did not meet the IET Blockchain criteria for publication. Thus, the overall submissions were of high quality, which marks the success of this special issue.

The three eventually accepted papers can be clustered into three main categories, namely theoretical, applications and case studies. The papers in the first category introduce innovations in Ethereum cost optimisation in Layer 2 rollups via EIP-4844, including gas efficiency and economic analysis, to provide solutions for gas costs and system design. The paper in this category is by Dyade et al. The second category of paper designs a system for the blockchain-based intelligent disbursement in national scholarship portal. The paper in this category is by Samu et al. The last category proposes a case study for the adoption of blockchain-based cryptocurrency as a payment method in Saudi Arabia. The paper in this category is by Alrehaili et al. A brief presentation of each of the papers in this special issue follows.

Dyade et al. introduce a comprehensive gas efficiency and economic analysis of EIP-4844's impact on Layer 2 rollups, providing mathematical models, simulation results and architectural diagrams to illustrate the improvements in gas costs and system design. EIP-4844 is poised to drive significant improvements in the efficiency, performance and cost-effectiveness of Ethereum Layer 2 rollups, paving the way for a more scalable and economically viable blockchain ecosystem. Access the full paper using the following link: https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1049/blc2.70014

Samu et al. propose a blockchain-based scholarship module to address these challenges and automate the entire scholarship process. The paper emphasises the transformative impact of the usage of Hyperledger Fabric Network, which provides a fool-proof system that streamlines the entire application process and fund disbursement. The proposed integration also ensures robust application verification, accountability of stakeholders, transparent scholarship selection criteria, automated and thorough tracking of fund disbursement, immutable transaction history, secure authorisation and stringent compliance measures. Thus, the implementation of the proposed system aims to alleviate the financial insecurities faced by students during their studies, simplify their search for scholarship opportunities, and enable them to focus more on their academic pursuits. Access the full paper using the following link: https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/blc2.12092

Alrehaili et al. adapt the Technology Acceptance Model to explore cryptocurrency adoption through the Blockchain-based Cryptocurrency as a Payment Method in Saudi Arabia (BCAP-SA) model. Factors within the model are assessed using an experimental vignette-task methodology and surveys. A key component is an educational package, offering comprehensive materials to explain blockchain technology. The findings confirm the reliability of surveys. Most model factors are statistically significant in influencing users' intention to use cryptocurrency. The study finds that Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Trust significantly impact participants' intentions. Additionally, Low Transaction Fees and Age are the most influential factors on the Technology Acceptance Model's core constructs. Statistical analysis indicates that Decentralisation and Anonymity were insignificant and thus excluded from the revised BCAP-SA model. These findings highlight the potential to enhance cryptocurrency adoption in Saudi Arabia. The study's insights can guide strategies to promote wider cryptocurrency usage in the region. Access the full paper using the following link: https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/blc2.70002

All of the papers selected for this special issue show that the field of blockchain is steadily moving forward. Blockchain has evolved from a simple cryptocurrency ledger to a sophisticated platform enabling programmable smart contracts and diverse applications beyond finance. Architectural innovations focus on scalability, interoperability, privacy, and sustainability. Applications now span DeFi, supply chain, identity, healthcare, gaming, governance, and more, driving the vision of a more transparent, efficient, and user-centric digital future (Web 3.0). Although challenges remain, the technology continues to mature rapidly.

Hao Guo received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from the Northwest University, Xi'an, China, in 2012, and the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, United States, in 2014, and his Ph.D. degree from the University of Delaware, Newark, United States, in 2020, all in computer science. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the School of Software at the Northwestern Polytechnical University. His research interests include blockchain and distributed ledger technology, privacy-preserving computation, applied cryptography, and Internet of Things (IoT) security. He is a member of both ACM and IEEE.

Wanxin Li is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communications and Networking at Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University. He received his doctoral & master's degrees from the University of Delaware and his bachelor's degree from Chongqing University. He was a recipient of IEEE ITSS Best Dissertation Award and IEEE TEMS Outstanding Ph.D. Dissertation Award in 2022. His research interests include blockchain, security & privacy, and federated learning. He is a Fellow of UK Higher Education Academy and a Member of IET.