Applied Water Science最新文献

{"title":"A novel ZnMn2O4/g-C3N4 nanocomposites heterojunction photocatalyst: preparation, characterization, and investigation of photocatalytic behavior over toxic dyes","authors":"Masoumeh Yaqoubi,&nbsp;Mojgan Ghanbari,&nbsp;Masoud Salavati-Niasari,&nbsp;Forat H. Alsultany,&nbsp;Salman Khalaf Issa","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02536-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02536-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Spinel-type photocatalysts, e.g., ZnMn₂O₄, have been receiving intense interest owing to their high photochemical stability and visible light absorption. However, their photocatalytic activity is limited due to fast electron–hole recombination. In this work, we present the preparation of a new ZnMn₂O₄/g-C₃N₄ nanocomposite heterojunction photocatalyst by a simple ultrasonic technique to solve this disadvantage. With the tuning of ZnMn₂O₄ loading, the optimal loading for 10% ZnMn₂O₄/g-C₃N₄ nanocomposite presented excellent dye removal efficiency of 98.8% under visible light irradiation, which strong outperformed pristine g-C₃N₄ and ZnMn₂O₄ by 33.7% and 43.0%, respectively. Radical scavenging studies indicated that hydroxyl radical (·OH) was primarily involved in the degradation mechanism. The kinetic study also supported the high reaction rate constant (<i>k</i> = 0.0333 min^‒1). This work presents a promising route to develop efficient, recyclable, stable, and visible light-driven photocatalysts for wastewater treatment.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02536-9.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145169062","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Morphometric analysis for understanding river basin hydrology: a case of gelda watershed, Tana Sub-Basin, Ethiopia","authors":"Dessie Wubetu Melsse,&nbsp;Moges Animut Tegegne,&nbsp;Yitbarek Andualem Mekonnen,&nbsp;Yilak Taye Bihon","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02526-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02526-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>River basin hydrology is meaningfully influenced by morphometric characteristics such as shape, size, and relief. These features play a serious role in shaping hydrological processes, including runoff, infiltration, and erosion. This study examines the morphometric parameters of the Gelda watershed in the Tana sub-basin of Ethiopia to assess their impact on hydrology. The research utilized ASTER Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data with a resolution of 12.5 m and ArcGIS 10.5 for spatial analysis. Key morphometric parameters were extracted from the DEM, including stream order classifications, bifurcation ratio, and drainage density. Statistical methods were applied to evaluate the relationships between these parameters and various hydrological characteristics. The findings indicate that the Gelda watershed is classified as a 5th-order stream basin, with a mean bifurcation ratio of 1.76, suggesting moderate branching in the stream network. The drainage density was measured at 1.65 km/km², indicating a high potential for surface runoff and low permeability. This condition increases the basin's vulnerability to soil erosion and limits its water retention capacity. These situations are crucial for effective water resource management, soil conservation, and erosion control strategies in the region and other similar river basins worldwide. The study recommends implementing targeted soil conservation practices and effective water management strategies to mitigate erosion risks and enhance water retention. Future research should integrate morphometric analysis with hydrological modeling to better predict the impacts of land use changes on basin hydrology.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02526-x.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145169423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of groundwater quality and hydrogeochemical properties in the adrar continental intercalaire aquifer of the Algerian Sahara","authors":"Alia Sara Lakhdari,&nbsp;Boualem Bouselsal,&nbsp;Hakim Saibi,&nbsp;Mohammed Ouarekh","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02552-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02552-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Adrar, located in an arid desert environment in southwest Algeria, relies exclusively on groundwater from the Continental Intercalaire aquifer for its water supply. This study aims to assess the quality of this groundwater for human consumption, irrigation, and industrial use and identify the hydrogeochemical processes driving its mineralization. To achieve this, 18 wells were analyzed using conventional laboratory methods. Quality indices applied include the drinking water quality index for potability and the irrigation water quality index for agricultural suitability. Corrosion and scaling potential were evaluated using the Langelier index, Ryznar index, Larson–Skold index, Puckorius index, and aggressive index. The results indicate that 44.44% of the water is suitable for drinking, 50% is of medium quality, and 5.56% is unsuitable for drinking. For irrigation, 31.25% of wells provide good-quality water, while 68.75% are classified as doubtful. Most of the analyzed waters are corrosive, with a tendency toward scaling and CaCO₃ precipitation. Hydrochemical analyses, including Piper diagrams, identified two water types: Ca–Mg–Cl (50%) and Ca–Cl (50%). Based on the Gibbs diagram, bivariate plots, and saturation indices, the groundwater’s mineralization is primarily attributed to water–rock interactions, such as the dissolution of silicate rocks, halite, and gypsum, along with cation exchange. Additionally, human activities significantly influence water chemistry. This study provides scientific foundations for sustainable groundwater resource management in Adrar, including water quality and exploitation. This work helps inform strategies for the preservation, rational use, and treatment of water, ensuring sustainable water access for domestic, agricultural, and industrial needs.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02552-9.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145169424","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Status of wastewater treatment and reuse in Saudi Arabia and its forecasting for the year 2035","authors":"Mubarak Faisal Alhajri,&nbsp;Rehan Jamil,&nbsp;Eltahir Mohamed Elhadi Abdalla,&nbsp;Ali Alqahtany,&nbsp;Sulaiman Almazroua,&nbsp;Wadee Ahmed Ghanem Al-Gehlani","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02484-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02484-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Water scarcity poses a significant challenge in Saudi Arabia, exacerbated by its arid climate and limited freshwater resources. In response to this, wastewater treatment and reuse have emerged as critical strategies for achieving sustainable water management. This study offers an in-depth analysis of the current state of wastewater treatment and reuse in Saudi Arabia, focusing on existing infrastructure, treatment technologies, and reuse practices across various sectors, including agriculture, industry, and municipal applications. To predict the future potential of wastewater treatment and reuse, the study employs advanced statistical techniques and regression models, projecting the situation in 2035. The results indicate a substantial increase of 43.6% in both treated wastewater production and its reuse by 2035. To ensure the robustness of these forecasts, the study employs ANOVA, normal distribution and sensitivity analysis, which confirm the reliability of the proposed model and its ability to provide accurate predictions. The findings of this research suggest that wastewater reuse could play a vital role in alleviating the Kingdom’s water scarcity challenges and improving overall water security. However, for this potential to be fully realized, challenges related to infrastructure development, public acceptance, and the creation of supportive policy frameworks must be addressed. This study highlights the importance of integrating wastewater reuse into long-term water resource planning to meet future demands. It offers valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders, providing actionable recommendations to guide the sustainable management of water resources in Saudi Arabia by 2035.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02484-4.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145167634","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ultraviolet-stimulated photocatalysis of crystal violet using (Gd(2-x)La(x)Zr(2-x)Sn(x)O7) pyrochlore nanoparticles","authors":"Mohamed Abdelbaky,&nbsp;Amr Mohamed Abdelghany,&nbsp;Ahmed Hamza Oraby,&nbsp;Mohamed M. Rashad","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02492-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02492-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The development of improved photocatalytic materials for the effective destruction of crystal violet under UV irradiation has been a crucial focus in water purification research. The advanced oxidation process, specifically the Fenton-like process, proved an excellent efficiency with the degradation of organic dyes such as crystal violet. Gd_(2-x)La_(x)Zr_(2-x)Sn_(x)O₇ pyrochlore nanopowder is successfully prepared by sol–gel auto-combustion method where (x = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.5). Various characterization techniques have been utilized for studying the prepared nanopowder, such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultraviolet–visible (UV–visible), and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Moreover, to ensure the efficiency of the photocatalysis process, unknown concentrations were determined using the visible spectrophotometer. At the completion of the purifying process (90 min), photocatalysis processes containing pyrochlore (Gd_(2-x)La_(x)Zr_(2-x)Sn_(x)O₇) and H₂O₂ or H₂O₂ alone are identical; nevertheless, the first one has significant benefits throughout the purification period based on C/C₀ values.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02492-4.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145166861","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Threats of arsenic and fluoride contamination in vulnerable Indo-Bangladesh coastal groundwater aquifers: issues, policy practice gap, and the way forward","authors":"Tanmoy Biswas,&nbsp;Subodh Chandra Pal,&nbsp;Asish Saha,&nbsp;Dipankar Ruidas,&nbsp;Chaitanya Baliram Pande,&nbsp;Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam,&nbsp;Aznarul Islam,&nbsp;Edris Alam,&nbsp;Md Kamrul Islam","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02533-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02533-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>In recent times, groundwater (GW) contamination has been rising at an alarming rate in the freshwater-scarce dry and coastal areas of the world in terms of arsenic (As) and fluoride (F⁻). This study focused on the vulnerability assessment of ‘As and F⁻’ contamination of GW in the Gangetic delta region by evaluating GW quality and potential health issues. After analyzing the health risk, it is noticed that about 65% area of the Ganges delta come over the moderate to excessive health risk zone, which is detected in the northeast, east, and central portion of this region due to high population pressure on GW consumption. The findings of this study will be fruitful to the local, national, and international environmentalists, water scientists, and supervision experts to mitigate such harmful condition sustainably and give safeguard to the local people by supplying fresh drinking water by undertaking some preventive measures.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02533-y.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145166806","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From garbage to biosorbent: overview raw and hexane purified almond shells for nickel (II) ions removal","authors":"Hasan Koçyiğit,&nbsp;Gülden Gök,&nbsp;Hakan Çelebi","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02520-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02520-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The main purpose of the experimental study is to examine Ni(II) biosorption capacities of raw (RAS) and hexane pretreated (HPAS) almond shells by applying them to wastewater. In the context of the study, batch experiments were conducted to investigate the influence of various parameters, including temperature, RAS and HPAS dosages, pH, and contact time, on the removal efficiency of Ni(II). FTIR and SEM–EDX analyses were performed to determine the functional groups and surface morphology of RAS and HPAS. Adsorption capacities were calculated using different isotherm and kinetic models with the obtained experimental data. It was determined that under optimum conditions (2 g RAS/HPAS, pH 5.87, 10 min, 20 °C), maximum removal efficiencies of Ni(II) for RAS and HPAS were 72% and 81.25%, respectively. The equilibrium adsorption fitted the Langmuir isotherm and pseudo-second-order kinetic. The optimum adsorption capacities for RAS and HPAS were found to be 3.60 and 5.67 mg/g, respectively. Four separate error functions were used to evaluate the suitability of isotherm and kinetic models under equilibrium conditions: MPSD, HYBRID, NSD, and ARE. The findings of the error analysis showed that the HYBRID functions were the smallest in all models. The thermodynamic parameters showed that the process was feasible and exothermic. Experimental results demonstrate that RAS and HPAS are economical and readily available adsorbents for the removal of Ni(II) from aqueous solution. It was also found to give satisfactory results for the removal of Ni(II) without the need for rather expensive modified methods.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02520-3.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145166756","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hydrogeochemical investigation of the groundwater quality controlling processes involved in north-western Bangladesh using statistical approaches","authors":"Mohammad Imran Hossain,&nbsp;Md. Mahfujul Alam,&nbsp;Sayeda Mobassara Tasnim,&nbsp;Tahmid A. Chowdhury,&nbsp;Mostafizur Rahaman,&nbsp;Ali Aldalbahi,&nbsp;Mohammad A. Hasnat","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02522-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02522-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Groundwater is the principal source of drinking water for the residents of the Bengal Delta Plain. However, its quality has reportedly been declining due to various anthropogenic and geogenic activities. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the current status of groundwater quality for sustainable resource management. This study aims to assess the current groundwater chemistry and evaluate the drinking water quality in the northwestern region of Bangladesh within the Bengal Delta, using multivariate statistical methods and water quality index (WQI) calculation. Data on various water quality parameters—fluoride, calcium, chloride, potassium, sodium, ammonium, nitrate, magnesium, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), water hardness, TOC, sulfate, carbonate, bicarbonate, trace and heavy metal profiles—were obtained from 128 sites across five sub-districts (also known as Upazila) in north-western Bangladesh. The results indicate that majority of the parameters met the standards defined by the WHO, except for NO₃⁻ in Baliadangi Upazila, where the study identified the underlying cause of this NO₃⁻ contamination. The WQI classified the 120 samples as follows: 55.00% were excellent, 34.17% were good, 10.00% were poor, and 0.83% were unfit for consumption. The groundwater samples in the region were free from heavy metals and contained permissible amounts of trace metals. The cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) identified diverse ions in various Upazilas as the influencing factors in water chemistry, primarily originating from either carbonate or silicate weathering processes. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into groundwater chemistry and quality, serving as a resource for those concerned with sustainable groundwater management.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02522-1.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145166681","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Phosphorus adsorption and recovery from waste streams using biochar: review of mechanisms, modifications, and agricultural applications","authors":"Soni Kumari,&nbsp;Younsuk Dong,&nbsp;Steven I. Safferman","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02523-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02523-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This literature review investigated the efficacy of both unmodified and modified biochars as an adsorbent for phosphorus (P) capture from waste streams. The review focused on critical design aspects including the maximum phosphate removal adsorption capacities, influence of pH, coexisting ions, and pyrolytic conditions on P adsorption. The adsorption mechanisms, including electrostatic interactions, ion exchange, and complexation, were elucidated to provide insights into the underlying processes. The review revealed that the maximum phosphate removal adsorption capacity was influenced by factors such as the biochar type, surface properties, pyrolytic conditions, and presence of hydroxyl (–OH), carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups. The pH of the solution was identified as a crucial parameter affecting the efficiency of phosphate adsorption. Coexisting ions, notably carbonate anions, exhibited negative impacts on the phosphate removal process. Furthermore, this review discusses the characterization techniques used to assess biochar properties and adsorption mechanisms. Challenges related to biochar scalability, regeneration, stability, and metal leaching are addressed. Moreover, this review explored agricultural applications of P-laden biochar and found P-enriched biochar holds promise as a slow-release fertilizer for soil enrichment. This review highlights the role of biochar in promoting sustainable P management by integrating its application in wastewater treatment and agricultural reuse.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02523-0.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145164809","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cowpea evapotranspiration modeling using the FAO-56 dual crop coefficient approach for climate-resilient agriculture under deficit irrigation conditions","authors":"Karam A. Elzopy,&nbsp;Udayar Pillai Surendran,&nbsp;Ashish K. Chaturvedi,&nbsp;Girish Gopinath,&nbsp;P. Raja,&nbsp;K. Madhava Chandran,&nbsp;Naeem Khan,&nbsp;Mohamed A. Yassin,&nbsp;Mohamed A. Mattar,&nbsp;Ali Salem","doi":"10.1007/s13201-025-02502-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13201-025-02502-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study evaluated the effects of different irrigation methods, varying levels of water deficit, and irrigation intervals on transpiration, soil evaporation, crop growth, and yield of cowpea (<i>Vigna unguiculata</i>) under field conditions. The assessment was conducted using the food and agriculture organization-56 dual crop coefficient method across seven irrigation treatments. In the I1, I2, and I3 treatments, irrigation was applied through a drip irrigation system at 100%, 80%, and 60% of crop evapotranspiration (ETc), respectively. In contrast, in the I4, I5, and I6 treatments, irrigation was provided at 100% of ETc when soil moisture depletion reached 45%, 60%, and 75% of the management allowed depletion threshold, respectively. The I7 treatment consisted of conventional furrow irrigation applied at four-day intervals. The results revealed that variable irrigation intervals in the I4, I5, and I6 treatments resulted in seasonal soil evaporation (E) savings of 17.4%, 29.9%, and 42.8%, respectively, compared to the treatments receiving frequent irrigation at two-day intervals. Furrow irrigation (I₇) doubled the evaporation losses as compared to drip irrigation. Under deficit irrigation in I2 and I3, transpiration (T) decreased by 18.5% and 42.7%, while ETc was reduced by 13.2% and 30.6%, respectively. Conversely, only 4.8% and 16.2% reductions in transpiration were observed under I5 and I6, respectively. The non-frequent irrigation regime in I4, I5, and I6 decreased seasonal ETc by 5.0%, 12.0%, and 23.8%, respectively, whereas furrow irrigation (I7) increased ETc by 28.1%. The highest growth and yield attributes were observed in drip-irrigated I1 and I4 treatments, as confirmed through spectral signatures and vegetation indices. The maximum yield of cowpea (11.57 tons per hectare) was recorded in I4, which was statistically on par with I1 and I7. The lowest yield was observed in the severely water-stressed I3 and I6 treatments. Deficit irrigation in I2 and I3 significantly improved the Water Productivity (WP, kg/m³)–Yield per unit of total crop evapotranspiration, Transpiration Use Efficiency (TrUE, kg/m³)–Yield per unit of transpiration, Irrigation Water productivity (IWP, kg/m³)–Yield per unit of irrigation water applied and Biomass Transpiration Productivity (WPTr, kg/m³)–Biomass per unit of transpiration. The study highlights the potential of deficit irrigation strategies (I2 and I3) to enhance water productivity and efficiency, while non-fixed irrigation intervals (I4, I5, and I6) contribute to reducing soil evaporation losses. Drip irrigation at 100% ETc with a non-fixed irrigation interval (I4) emerged as the most effective treatment, optimizing both yield and water conservation. These findings have significant implications for improving irrigation management in water-scarce regions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8374,"journal":{"name":"Applied Water Science","volume":"15 7","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.7,"publicationDate":"2025-06-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13201-025-02502-5.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145164810","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}