Annals of botany最新文献

{"title":"Extrafloral nectaries influence Lepidopteran herbivore communities and network structure in the Brazilian Cerrado.","authors":"Iasmim De-Freitas, Vitor M Costa-Silva, Xoaquín Moreira, Kleber Del Claro","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag068","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag068","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) are plant glands that secrete nectar, attracting ants and other predatory arthropods and mediating multitrophic interactions. EFNs provide indirect defence by reducing herbivory, often enhancing plant growth, survival, and reproduction. Their effects on herbivore communities are complex, as some species can evade ant predation, altering abundance, diversity, and composition. EFNs can shape network-level interactions, including modularity, nestedness, and specialization. However, few studies have assessed their simultaneous effects on community structure and network properties, limiting understanding of their broader ecological roles.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>To address this gap, here we investigated whether EFNs influence Lepidopteran communities and network structure, hypothesizing that EFN-bearing plants would support higher diversity, host distinct assemblages, and exhibit greater modularity by acting as ecological filters. We examined 56 plant species in the Brazilian Cerrado (30 with EFNs, 26 without) over two years, measuring Lepidopteran abundance, diversity, community composition, and network properties, including specialization, plant centrality, modularity, nestedness, and interaction turnover.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Our results showed that EFN-bearing plants exhibited higher Lepidopteran abundance and diversity and harboured distinct Lepidopteran assemblages compared to non-EFN plants. At the individual network level, EFNs enhanced plant centrality, acting as connecting hubs of interaction. At the structural network level, EFNs increased modularity, whereas nestedness and Lepidopteran specialization remained unchanged. Species interaction turnover also differed between EFN and non-EFN plant species, highlighting the role of EFNs in structuring community dynamics.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>By jointly analysing abundance, diversity, and network architecture, this study provides a comprehensive assessment of how EFNs influence multitrophic interactions.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147484368","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Soil microbiota promote the success of the perennial legume Lupinus polyphyllus more strongly in invasive than in native populations.","authors":"Annika Nylund, Aino Kalske, Seyed Abdollah Mousavi, Satu Ramula","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag067","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag067","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Geographical variation in soil microbial communities can give rise to differences in the performance and competitive abilities of plants between the invasive and native ranges, potentially due to the presence of more efficient mutualists or release from pathogens in the invasive range.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We investigated how microbial inoculation with soil taken from invasive and native sites of the legume Lupinus polyphyllus affects the performance of plants of both origins and their belowground bacterial communities. We also exposed a co-occurring herb from the invasive range to a substrate that had previously been occupied by inoculated and non-inoculated L. polyphyllus to assess whether soil microbes mediate its competitive allelopathic effects.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>We found that for plants of invasive origin, inoculation with soil from the invasive range enhanced performance more than inoculum from the native range. For plants of native origin, instead, performance was facilitated equally by the microbiota from both ranges. Substrate that had been occupied by L. polyphyllus did not inhibit the germination of the co-occurring herb. Differences in the composition of the belowground bacterial communities between plants grown in soil inocula from invasive and native sites at the family level were minor.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Our results advance the mechanistic understanding of plant invasions, suggesting that soil mutualists in the invasive range may facilitate invasion success as proposed by the enhanced mutualism hypothesis. Alternatively, greater performance of invasive plants with soil microbes from their own range could reflect other adaptations either in plants, soil microbiota or both.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147484340","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integration of structural variation enhances the resolution of population structure and helps delineate conservation units.","authors":"Detuan Liu, Rengang Zhang, Yuhang Chang, Yongpeng Ma","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag062","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag062","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Rhododendron griersonianum has been classified as Critically Endangered (CR) and listed as a National Key Protected Wild Plant Species in China. Unfortunately, none of its populations are found within nature reserves, leaving them vulnerable to anthropogenic threats. Identifying conservation units is crucial to ensure its survival and recovery.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We employed whole genome resequencing to identify 5,800,675 SNPs and 11,940 SVs. Using these genomic markers, we compared genomic diversity, population clustering and differentiation. By integrating gene flow analysis and demographic reconstruction, we delineated conservation units and formulated management recommendations.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Population genomic analysis revealed relatively low genomic diversity in R. griersonianum, with values of 1.61 × 10-³ for SNPs and 1.36 × 10-⁵ for SVs. Despite the close geographical distances (minimum 5.9 km between populations), we detected limited gene flow (mean D = 0.054) and a high inbreeding level (FROH = 0.16), which was estimated to have begun approximately 3,500 years ago. The four populations formed three genetic clusters. Population demographic analysis indicated a declining trend in effective population size from 3,000 to 1,000 years ago. Based on these results, we delineated two management units (MUs), three evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) and three adaptive (putative) units (AUs). We also made recommendations for the future conservation of R. griersonianum.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The integration of both SNPs and SVs enhanced the resolution of population structure and refined the delineation of conservation units in this narrowly distributed, small-population species. Our results provide important baseline genetic data, improving our understanding of recent human activities shaping contemporary population structure of small-population species.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147479564","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Specific leaf area modulates but does not explain the association between abiotic stress tolerance and insect feeding guild prevalence in Northern Hemisphere woody plants.","authors":"Andrea Cerdeira-Pérez, Lauri Laanisto, Nicola Pavanetto, Giacomo Puglielli","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag065","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag065","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Plant adaptations to abiotic stress and insect herbivory may share functional bases, yet large-scale evidence linking stress tolerance strategies to herbivory patterns remains limited. We tested whether abiotic stress tolerance associates with insect herbivory patterns in Northern Hemisphere woody plants, and whether specific leaf area (SLA) and plant functional type (PFT) modulate this relationship.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We combined data on 5,927 lepidopteran and hymenopteran species with 645 woody plant species from three PFTs (deciduous angiosperms, evergreen angiosperms, evergreen gymnosperms) for which information on their shade, drought, cold, and waterlogging tolerance was also available. We then modelled the prevalence of three feeding guilds (chewers, borers, miners) as a function of stress tolerance, SLA, and their interaction at both species and assemblage levels.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Assemblage-level associations were substantially stronger than species-level patterns (54% vs. 18% of significant effects, respectively). Despite significant SLA × stress tolerance interactions, these did not provide a clear mechanistic explanation of the observed patterns. In addition, spatial autocorrelation in model residuals was substantial (mean Moran's I = 0.66), and most of the observed effects were not robust to correction for spatial dependency.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Abiotic stress tolerance and SLA interact to shape herbivore guild composition, but SLA modulates rather than mediates this relationship, defining a context within which other, unidentified factors (e.g., most specific defense traits) operate. The strong spatial structure in herbivore communities likely reflects biogeographic processes (dispersal limitation, host specificity, regional species pool assembly) that operate independently of contemporary trait distributions. Understanding plant-herbivore interactions at macroecological scales requires integrating trait-based filtering with historical and biogeographic constraints.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147479516","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrated Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals How PdMYB44 Enhances Drought Tolerance in Pugionium dolabratum by Activating the AsA-GSH Cycle.","authors":"Yan Men, Hongtao Yu, Xiumei Huang, Xiaoyan Zhang, Zhongren Yang, Fenglan Zhang","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag066","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag066","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Oxidative damage caused by drought stress is a key factor limiting crop survival and distribution. The desert plant Pugionium dolabratum exhibits extreme drought tolerance, but its intrinsic antioxidant regulatory mechanism remains unclear.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>In this study, a progressive soil drought treatment was employed to systematically evaluate the growth status of P. dolabratum seedlings and the dynamic response of the ascorbate-glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Integrated transcriptomic and proteomic analyses identified a set of genes significantly and concordantly regulated at both transcriptional and translational levels under drought stress. From these, PdMYB44, a gene encoding a MYB44 transcription factor with conserved roles in stress responses, was prioritized for functional analysis. Overexpression of PdMYB44 in Arabidopsis conferred enhanced drought tolerance compared to the wild-type plants, evidenced by a 12.50% increase in seed germination rate, elevated leaf relative water content and proline content, coordinated decreases in stomatal conductance and transpiration, and enhanced ROS scavenging capacity via the AsA-GSH cycle, as indicated by increased AsA and GSH pools (by 69.92% and 19.13%, respectively) and elevated APX and GR activities. Notably, under non-stress conditions, PdMYB44 overexpression promoted early flowering. To explore the molecular mechanism, we performed yeast two-hybrid assays, which revealed a direct interaction between PdMYB44 and glutathione S-transferase PdGST.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This study reveals that a direct interaction between PdMYB44 and PdGST enhances the AsA-GSH cycle efficiency, thereby promoting ROS scavenging and significantly improving plant drought tolerance. To our knowledge, this is the first report to unveil the direct \"MYB44-GST\" regulatory module in a desert plant, providing an important theoretical basis and a genetic resource for improving crop stress resistance.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147479566","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The phylogenetic diversity of plant communities in response to anthropogenic disturbances in a Neotropical savanna.","authors":"Monize Altomare, Emilio Miguel Bruna, Karen Christina Ferreira Neves, Erica Rievrs Borges, Imma Oliveras Menor, Jamir Afonso do Prado Júnior, Heraldo Luis Vasconcelos","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag058","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag058","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Traditional assessments of human impact on ecological communities often focus on species richness and abundance, without considering the evolutionary relationship between species. This study evaluated how anthropogenic disturbances, notably those favoring invasive species, alter the phylogenetic diversity and structure of plant communities in the Cerrado, a global biodiversity hotspot. We compared alpha and beta phylogenetic diversity and structure (using PD, SES PD, SES MPD and SES MNTD) in plant communities from 11 roadside sites, characterized by high densities of exotic species, with 10 conservation areas (reserves), where exotic species occur at much lower densities. Phylogenetic metrics were calculated using data from the entire community or from native species only. Phylogenetic richness (PD) was consistently lower in roadside communities than in reserves, reflecting reduced species richness under chronic disturbance. In contrast, standardized phylogenetic richness (SES-PD) did not differ between habitats, indicating that roadside communities retain a broad representation of native evolutionary lineages. Differences in phylogenetic structure emerged only when exotic species were included in the analysis and, in this case, roadside communities exhibited phylogenetic clustering at both deep and terminal evolutionary levels, whereas reserve communities showed a random phylogenetic structure. Similarly, differences in phylogenetic dissimilarity between roadside and reserve communities were detected only when data from exotic species were included in the analysis. In this case, evidence of phylogenetic homogenization in roadside communities was detected, and this was probably associated with the much greater abundance of invasive grasses in this than in the protected habitats. Overall, our findings indicate that chronic disturbance is associated with phylogenetic homogenization in Cerrado plant communities, particularly in habitats dominated by invasive grasses. We suggest that protected areas play a crucial role in preserving phylogenetic diversity, especially for disturbance-sensitive clades. Accordingly, maintaining and expanding reserves, safeguarding remnant habitats, and managing biological invasions within disturbed landscapes are key strategies for conserving the evolutionary heritage and biodiversity of the Cerrado savanna biome.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147472397","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Population genetic diversity and structure, demographic history, and deleterious mutations analyzed by whole genome resequencing in Salvia daiguii: a plant species with extremely small populations from China.","authors":"Han-Wen Xiao, Yan-Bo Huang, Xun-Yu Han, Ru-Nan Tian","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag059","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag059","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Sage is globally recognized for its significant ornamental and medicinal values. Salvia daiguii, a perennial herb native to Zhangjiajie, Hunan Province, China, has a graceful plant shape, dense flowers, high stress tolerance, and high medicinal value. However, this species is at high risk of extinction owing to its narrow geographic distribution, habitat fragmentation, and multiple anthropogenic disturbances.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This study aimed to understand the genetic mechanisms underlying the endangered status of S. daiguii by investigating the population genetic diversity and structure, linkage disequilibrium decay, demographic history, inbreeding, and the genetic load of the species populations. Whole-genome resequencing was conducted on 28 samples collected from three distinct populations.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Analysis of these samples yielded 3,755,203 high-quality SNPs. The results showed evidence of gene flow, moderate genetic diversity, and low-to-moderate genetic differentiation among the three S. daiguii populations. Demographic history analyses indicated a continued decline in effective population size. Genetic load analysis indicated minimal inbreeding, but revealed the accumulation of putative deleterious mutations across the populations. These mutations were predominantly enriched in functional categories related to cellular and metabolism processes.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This study integrated multiple population genetic inference methods to elucidate the genetic basis of S. daiguii endangered status at the genomic level. These methods provide an applicable framework for the conservation genomics of plant species with extremely small populations. Moreover, this genetic data further informs the prioritization of conservation units and genetic rescue strategies, contributing to an evidence-based frameworks for global plant conservation.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147472451","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fire-stimulated flowering enhances multiple plant fitness components.","authors":"Julia Gegunde, Maria Clara Castellanos, Juli G Pausas","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag048","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Fire is a key ecological driver shaping reproductive strategies in fire-prone ecosystems. One distinctive strategy is fire-stimulated flowering, whereby plants flower more profusely under post-fire conditions than in the absence of fire. Despite its widespread occurrence, the reproductive benefits of this strategy remain poorly quantified. We hypothesized that fire-stimulated flowering is an adaptive strategy that enhances plant fitness by increasing success across multiple reproductive stages.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We compared multi-year data on all stages of reproduction, from flowering density to seedling recruitment, in four Mediterranean geophytes (Asphodelus cerasifer, Dipcadi serotinum, Drimia maritima and Narcissus assoanus), between burned and adjacent unburned areas across six natural wildfires.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Plants in burned areas showed higher flowering density, flower production and total seed output, and in some species, this was also associated with increased pollinator visitation and pollen deposition. Seedling recruitment was consistently higher in burned areas.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Our results provide evidence of the adaptive value of fire-stimulated flowering, which allows plants to exploit the unique abiotic and biotic conditions of the immediate post-fire environment, and highlight fire as a key driver of plant life-history evolution in Mediterranean ecosystems.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147466784","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ecophysiological differences and the cost of reproduction in a native sex-switching species.","authors":"Samuel Hodgson, Sydney Ward, Olivia Thomas, Steven Awad, Jennifer Blake-Mahmud","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag057","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag057","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Over an individual's lifetime, resources are allocated to a variety of functions such as maintenance and reproduction. When resources used for reproducing in the present negatively affect health or longevity, and therefore the chance of reproducing in the future, this is considered a cost of reproduction. In most dioecious species with stable sex expression, these costs equate to differences in early versus late paternity or to early vs late maternity. But in rare species that switch sex during their lifetimes, individuals may tradeoff between all four of these options. The costs of reproducing may be visible in differences in sex-based physiology.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We investigated differences in sex-based physiology in five forest populations of Acer pensylvanicum, striped maple, in northern Michigan. This species exhibits environmental sex determination, a mechanism by which individuals may change sex from year to year based on environmental cues or physiological conditions. For over a hundred study trees, we measured photosynthetic rate, growth, and fluorescence in spring and summer over three years.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>Compared to non-flowering trees, we found that flowering trees grow less and have higher rates of photosynthesis. Reproductive trees flowering female had significantly lower growth rates and photosynthetic rates than male trees. Females were especially impacted by the season, demonstrating a larger decrease in carbon assimilation in the summer compared to the spring.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>These data are consistent with the idea that there is a substantial cost to reproducing as a female, noticeable especially during the time when females are developing seeds. These results suggest that striped maple females may be disproportionately affected by climatic stressors compared to males, an observation that is in line with predictions for stable dioecious species.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147462690","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Importance of polyploidisation for diversification of hyperdiverse Euphorbia subgen. Esula: polyploidy is positively correlated with increasing latitude, but negatively with elevation.","authors":"Špela Pungaršek, Jasna Dolenc Koce, Božo Frajman","doi":"10.1093/aob/mcag056","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcag056","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aims: </strong>Polyploidy is one of the most important evolutionary pathways in flowering plants, significantly contributing to their diversification and radiation. However, little is known about how this process has contributed to the high diversity of Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae), one of the largest genera of flowering plants. Our aim was to determine the incidence of polyploidy and the evolutionary dynamics of genome size (GS) differentiation across the different lineages (sections) of Euphorbia subgen. Esula. Additionally, we investigated whether the latitudinal and elevational distribution of polyploids within the subgenus, as well as differences in the incidence of polyploidy and GS differentiation between annual and perennial species align with the general patterns observed in angiosperms.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We estimated the relative genome size (RGS) of over 3,300 populations of 219 species from all 21 sections of E. subgen. Esula. We established new chromosome counts for 41 species and supplemented these with published chromosome numbers. Statistical analyses were performed on the elevational and latitudinal distributions of diploid and polyploid populations. We further investigated the RGS differentiation between annual and perennial species. Finally, we reconstructed the evolutionary dynamics of RGS across the phylogeny of the subgenus Esula.</p><p><strong>Key results: </strong>We identified an uneven frequency of polyploidy across different lineages of E. subgen. Esula, but a similar incidence of putative auto- and allopolyploids. Substantial evolutionary down- and up-sizing of RGS was mostly driven by transitions to an annual or perennial life cycle, and to a lesser extent by polyploidy. Annual species have a smaller GS, but the same probability of being polyploid as perennials. Polyploids thrive better at higher latitudes, but at lower elevations, which is consistent with general patterns observed across angiosperms.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Our large-scale study provides evidence that multiple polyploidisation events at different temporal scales have triggered diversification within the highly diverse genus Euphorbia, and that the spatial distribution of diploid and polyploid populations follow the general patterns revealed for flowering plants.</p>","PeriodicalId":8023,"journal":{"name":"Annals of botany","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.6,"publicationDate":"2026-03-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147442157","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}