Agricultural Water Management最新文献

{"title":"Integration of machine learning models and remote sensing for estimating the Water Deficit Index","authors":"Soroush Sharghi,&nbsp;Amin Zeynolabedin","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109827","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109827","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Irrigation management based on accurate estimation of crop water stress is essential for improving water use efficiency in arid agricultural systems. This study developed Machine Learning (ML) models for the direct estimation of the Water Deficit Index (WDI) from satellite imagery. Actual and potential evapotranspiration (ETa and ETp) were derived from Landsat 8 data using the METRIC model to generate WDI reference images. Then, the Landsat 8 spectral and thermal bands were used as predictors, and the METRIC-derived WDI was used as the predictand to train and test three ML models: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Support Vector Regression (SVR), and Random Forest (RF). The study area included pistachio orchards with diverse tree ages, cultivars, and irrigation practices, providing a wide range of agronomic and environmental conditions for model development. Results showed that the RF model achieved relatively better accuracy (DC = 0.850, RMSE = 0.075, KGE = 0.853) compared to the ANN and SVR models, indicating its suitability for estimating crop water stress under heterogeneous conditions. The proposed approach enables the generation of spatially explicit WDI maps in near-real time, providing a cost-effective decision-support tool for precision irrigation and sustainable water resource management in arid regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109827"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094060","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Drip irrigation affects dough processing quality by regulating synthesis of glutenin macropolymers in wheat grain","authors":"Lingxin Zhang ,&nbsp;Min Zhang ,&nbsp;Haoyu Li ,&nbsp;Xiwei Liu ,&nbsp;Qiao Li ,&nbsp;Yaokuo Wang ,&nbsp;Yanfei Yan ,&nbsp;Min Yang ,&nbsp;Ruiguo Cai","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109809","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109809","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Field experiments on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain evaluated drip irrigation's effect on two high-gluten wheat varieties (ZM886, ZM998) under five treatments: rain-fed (W0) and drip irrigation (300-W1, 450-W2, 600-W3, 750-W4 m³ ha⁻¹). Compared to W0 (7855.87 kg ha⁻¹), irrigation increased grain yield by 5.37–12.45 % (ZM886) and 7.01–17.19 % (ZM998).Dough stability time decreased in ZM886 (4.00–24.25 %) across all irrigation levels versus W0. For ZM998, it declined under W3 (4.98 %) and W4 (14.29 %) but increased under W1 (7.00 %) and W2 (3.36 %). Dough tensile resistance increased in ZM886 under W1 (5.25 %) but decreased under W2-W4 (2.37–36.93 %); ZM998 saw increases under W1 (19.89 %) and W2 (4.18 %) but decreases under W3 (15.01 %) and W4 (21.99 %). Soluble glutenin protein (SGP) to glutenin macropolymer (GMP) conversion occurred at 26 days post-anthesis under W0; higher drip irrigation delayed high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit (HMW-GS) detection. Irrigation generally reduced GMP, SGP, disulfide bonds (-S-S-), free thiol groups (free -SH), and HMW-GS, with the largest reductions under W4 (e.g., GMP: −34.00 % ZM886, −39.38 % ZM998). Conversely, moderate irrigation (W1) increased free -SH (3.25 % ZM886, 4.53 % ZM998) and -S-S- (8.54 % ZM886, 9.33 % ZM998), and slightly increased GMP in ZM886 (2.23 %) and SGP in ZM998 (0.57 %).Moderate irrigation (W1, 300 m³ ha⁻¹, WUE 6.10–7.55 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹) optimized dough stability time and tensile resistance by influencing SGP depolymerization, HMW-GS content, and GMP modulation, achieving the best balance between dough quality and yield for water-efficient cultivation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109809"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094064","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Remote sensing-based monitoring of compound drought-waterlogging stress in groundwater-sensitive agroecosystems in arid regions","authors":"Di Fu ,&nbsp;Xin Jin ,&nbsp;Yanxiang Jin ,&nbsp;Xufeng Mao ,&nbsp;Naixin Yao","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109826","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109826","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Groundwater-Sensitive Agroecosystem (GWSA) in arid regions are increasingly vulnerable to compound drought-waterlogging disasters driven by groundwater fluctuations under climate change. This study proposes a remote sensing-based framework to monitor such compound stress in the Gahai Irrigation District, Northwest China. By integrating a 1 km-resolution root-zone soil moisture (RZSM) dataset with 33 downscaling factors (e.g., vegetation indices, topography, and hydrological variables), we generated a 30 m-resolution daily RZSM product (2018–2022) using a Random Forest algorithm. The Soil Moisture Condition Index (SMCI-index) and Double Stress Index (DSI) were developed to identify drought (SMCI-index &lt; 0.4 for ≥10 days) and waterlogging (SMCI-index &gt; 0.6 for ≥3 days) events and their synergistic impacts. Results revealed significant spatial heterogeneity in Compound Drought-Waterlogging Stress: moderate stress dominated central GWSA (13.82 km²), driven by waterlogging-induced soil degradation, while severe stress (6.04 km²) occurred along boundaries with alternating drought-waterlogging dominance. Groundwater level, precipitation, and temperature were key drivers, with temperature paradoxically reducing drought areas via snowmelt-enhanced recharge. Validation of the SMCI-index derived from RZSM data showed strong consistency with vegetation indices (POD &gt; 80 %, r = 0.98) and a 69.27 % spatial overlap with modeled waterlogging zones. This study demonstrates that the use of downscaled RZSM data can effectively mitigate precipitation interference and enable fine-scale monitoring of groundwater-driven compound drought-waterlogging stress. The findings offer critical insights for enhancing agricultural resilience and thus maintaining ecosystem services in GWSA under hydrological extremes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109826"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094061","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impacts and biophysical mechanisms of agricultural water saving on land surface temperature in Northwest China","authors":"Jing Fu ,&nbsp;Shaozhong Kang ,&nbsp;Minzhong Zou","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109804","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109804","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Precise agricultural water regulation and the development of high-efficiency water-saving technologies are crucial for addressing water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions. However, few studies have investigated the climatic effects and underlying biophysical mechanisms of such large-scale land management practices. In this study, we investigated the impact of large-scale agricultural water saving (AWS) on land surface temperature based on a modified ESM and used an attribution method based on the energy balance equation to analyze the contributions of various biophysical factors. Results indicate that during 1992–2018, the substantial reduction in irrigation water use per unit area has led to decreased latent heat flux and increased sensible heat flux over irrigated croplands. This weakened the evaporative cooling effect previously associated with high-volume irrigation, consequently elevating land surface temperature by approximately 0.2°C on average across the region. Simultaneously, it reduced near-surface air humidity by up to 5 %, mitigating the local warming and moistening trends. Using the derived attribution framework, we quantitatively assessed the relative contributions of different driving factors to this warming effect. The results reveal that the altered distribution of available energy (changed in Bowen ratio, <em>β</em>) within the land surface processes was the primary driver of the increased land surface temperature (+0.25°C). This study demonstrates that with the adoption of more efficient irrigation methods and regional water regulation, the impact of this human management measure on regional climate requires a more scientific assessment to better address the threats and challenges posed by climate change.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109804"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094066","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Winter canola water use response under dormant and growth stage based irrigation strategies","authors":"Paramveer Singh ,&nbsp;Sangu Angadi ,&nbsp;Sultan Begna ,&nbsp;Michael J. Stamm ,&nbsp;Brian J. Schutte ,&nbsp;Dawn VanLeeuwen","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109807","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109807","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Declining Ogallala Aquifer in the semiarid southern High Plains (SHP) is threatening highly productive irrigated agriculture. Winter canola (<em>Brassica napus</em> L.) requires less irrigation water than traditional crops. Identifying irrigation strategy that skips irrigation at less critical growth stage or refills soil profile during dormant period to further reduce irrigation inputs may improve sustainability of Ogallala Aquifer. A field study was conducted at Clovis, NM during 2017–18 and 2018–19 seasons using two cultivars (cvs. Hekip and Riley) to assess soil water extraction patterns (SWE), and water productivity (WP) under various irrigation regimes. Main plot treatments consisted of with (DPI) and without (NDPI) dormant period irrigation, while growth stage-based irrigations included FI (irrigation throughout the season), VS (no irrigation before first blossom), RS (no irrigation after first blossom), and RD (no irrigation after establishment) as the sub-plot treatments. The DPI significantly increased SWE, consumptive water use, biomass (BY) and seed yield (SY). However, extra water extracted in DPI did not improve WP_{BY &amp; SY}. Irrigation restrictions during any part of the growing season were detrimental as compared to continuous irrigation. However, restricting irrigation to the first blossom stage was less impactful, as the VS treatment had higher yields and WPs than the RS and RD treatment. There was marginal effect of cultivar-type on SWE, and WPs. To summarize, winter canola was able to tap into stored dormant irrigation but was not effectively used in yield formation. Growers with limited irrigation can implement in-season VS regime without significant yield loss or WP.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109807"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094065","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Soil moisture and livestock jointly drive grassland degradation mitigation based on sensitivity analysis","authors":"Xiaoke Zhang ,&nbsp;Yuanguo Liu ,&nbsp;Mingze Sun ,&nbsp;Jiangtao Hong ,&nbsp;Qihao Zhu ,&nbsp;Xuyang Lu ,&nbsp;Xiaodan Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109822","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109822","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Alpine grasslands, serving as a crucial ecological security barrier, have undergone significant change in response to rapid environmental changes. However, alpine grassland degradation and their sensitivity changes remain poorly understood. Here we used long-term satellite observations and a novel baseline to evaluate the grassland degradation status on the Northern Tibetan Plateau. Subsequently, sensitivity coefficients were employed to analysis sensitivity changes and the contribution of climate and human factors in grassland degradation. We observed a mitigation in grassland degradation, with soil moisture and livestock as the predominant contributing factor to this process. Additionally, alpine grasslands exhibit low sensitivity to environmental changes when vegetation cover is sparse but display high sensitivity when vegetation cover is abundant. Using path analysis, we show that sensitivity change pattern are caused by water variability. The sensitivity to climate change sharply increases with the increase in greening, indicating a potential trend of ‘greening but drought’ in the future.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109822"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094086","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Role of micro-nanobubble water aeration on emitter clogging and uniformity of drip irrigation system","authors":"Abdul Rahim Junejo ,&nbsp;Jinrui Liu ,&nbsp;Irfan Ahmed Shaikh ,&nbsp;Imran Ali Lakhair ,&nbsp;Hao Li","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109820","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109820","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Drip irrigation system (DIS) is widely adopted around the world. Whereas the surge in global food demand has heightened the dire increase in technological advancements in conventional DIS. Emitter clogging severely restricts the uniformity and service life of DIS’s, hindering their wider adoption and application. Micro-nano bubble (MNB) technology significantly delays emitter clogging rates and enhances system performance through its triple anti-clogging mechanisms: physical drag reduction, chemical crystallization inhibition, and biological regulation. This paper is started by reviewing MNB technology, the technique of its generation, and the physicochemical factors that help it work in lessening the clogging agents like the biofilms, suspended particles, and precipitates. It proceeds to discuss the nature of emitter clogging and factors that lead to the same, like physical, chemical and even biological; it then comments on how the MNB water can counter these actions. The specific focus is made on how MNBs affect the performance of emitters and uniformity of the system. Although the research points towards better longevity of the emitter as well as better distribution uniformity, the review also finds notable contributions gaps, such as the lack of long-term field data, standard evaluation methods, etc. Through a review of the existing literature, this paper is an attempt to establish untapped potential of the MNB technology in conventional DIS and to provide a comprehensive guide for future researchers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109820"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094085","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimization of agricultural water price setting strategy and government subsidy mechanisms based on game analysis","authors":"Xing Yang,&nbsp;Miao Hou,&nbsp;Wenye Zhang,&nbsp;Yan Ju,&nbsp;Zhihuan Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109814","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109814","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Optimizing water resource management to promote water conservation requires coordinated water pricing and government subsidies that ensure both irrigation system reliability and farmers’ compliance with water quotas, while avoiding increases in farmers’ financial burdens. This study develops a non-cooperative game-theoretic framework that incorporates operation and maintenance (O&amp;M) costs, water price approaches, and the payoffs and constraints of both government and farmers to analyze their strategic interactions under different scenarios, with particular emphasis on {S, C} and {S, E}. Here, S represents a sufficient government subsidy that fully covers O&amp;M costs; C indicates farmers comply with water quotas; and E indicates farmers exceed water quotas. Using 13 irrigation districts located in the 13 prefecture-level cities of Jiangsu Province as a case study, the framework is applied to examine two periods, 2013–2015 and 2021–2023. Both the theoretical water pricing strategies and the actual strategies implemented by local governments are compared to identify gaps and their underlying causes. Results show that the provincial average water price was approximately 0.1 yuan (Chinese yuan, RMB) per cubic meter, and that subsidies generally kept farmers’ water fee burden within affordable limits. Actual subsidies were generally lower than theoretical levels, indicating constraints in government willingness to provide full support. In 2013–2015, the actual proportion of water fees borne by the government (APG) averaged 74.9 %, 65.2 %, and 43.1 % in southern, central, and northern Jiangsu, respectively; in 2021–2023, these values were 73.0 %, 62.0 %, and 41.2 %. Despite improved fiscal capacity, governments’ willingness to provide subsidies declined, partly due to the increase in per capita agricultural GDP (AGDPpc), which encompassed income from non-agricultural sources. Nonetheless, APG was significantly and positively correlated with regional per capita GDP (GDPpc) and agricultural per capita GDP (AGDPpc) in both periods. Per-mu irrigation water use (1 ha = 15 mu) decreased from 739–875 m³/mu in 2013–2015, exceeding quota limits, to 522–608 m³/mu in 2021–2023, generally within quota limits. This trend reflects a shift from the {S, E} scenario of high water consumption to the {S, C} scenario of sustainable, quota-compliant irrigation in Jiangsu.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109814"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094089","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reducing nitrate leaching and runoff through crop rotations in the Upper Mississippi River Basin","authors":"Yingqi Zhang ,&nbsp;Xiaoyu Zhang ,&nbsp;Junyu Qi ,&nbsp;Gary W. Marek ,&nbsp;Kelin Hu ,&nbsp;Tiezhu Yan ,&nbsp;Srinivasulu Ale ,&nbsp;Guilong Zhang ,&nbsp;Raghavan Srinivasan ,&nbsp;Yong Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109817","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109817","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nitrate nitrogen (NO₃-N) loss is the main source of water quality pollution in many agricultural regions. Mitigating NO₃-N loss from croplands in a tractable manner has become a vital challenge. This study selected a heavy NO₃-N loading area of the Upper Mississippi River Basin (UMRB) and applied a calibrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The model was used to evaluate lateral and vertical NO₃-N losses before and after crop rotation adjustments. Results showed that the risk of high NO₃-N losses was greater under continuous corn than that of corn-soybean rotation in the baseline land uses, and NO₃-N leaching was a more severe loss pathway than runoff. Moreover, the four crop rotation adjustment scenarios were effective in reducing NO₃-N losses for the UMRB, especially for the lower reaches zones. The appropriate crop rotation patterns were then defined as meeting the 20 % reduction target threshold with the least deviation from baseline land uses. It was found that the appropriate patterns could reduce NO₃-N leaching over 20 % compared to the baseline land uses, and also simultaneously reduced NO₃-N runoff by more than 25 %, which further supported the appropriateness of selected crop rotation patterns. The final adjustments were mainly concentrated in the headwaters and lower reaches zones of the basin, primarily for continuous corn land use which had more severe risks. Overall, this study provided insights for mitigating NO₃-N losses through runoff and leaching and highlighted the importance of integrated basin-wide management from multiple perspectives.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109817"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of intrinsic water-use efficiency and environmental factors on radial growth of Populus euphratica, Taklamakan Desert, China","authors":"Anwar Abdureyim ,&nbsp;Yanbo Wan ,&nbsp;Yue Dai ,&nbsp;Erkin Flora ,&nbsp;Qingdong Shi","doi":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109823","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109823","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate warming and human activities have altered water resource distribution in desert areas, accelerated water infiltration and evaporation, disrupted the water cycle, and increased drought stress in riparian forests. However, the effects of climate varying environmental conditions on intrinsic water use efficiency (<em>i</em>WUE) and tree growth in <em>Populus euphratica</em> Oliv. remain unexplored. Using tree-ring width and <em>δ</em>¹³C composition data, we analyzed the growth and <em>i</em>WUE of <em>P. euphratica</em> across three sample plots with varying groundwater depths in the Daliyaboyi Oasis. We found that <em>P. euphratica</em> basal area increment (BAI) and <em>i</em>WUE significantly increased across all sampling plots from 1980 to 2003 with no significant changes from 2004 to 2022. In the shallow-groundwater sample plot, <em>P. euphratica</em> BAI and <em>i</em>WUE were significantly positively correlated with temperature (TEM), vapor pressure difference (VPD), and runoff (RO) and significantly negatively correlated with relative humidity (RH). Conversely, in the deep-groundwater sample plot, <em>P. euphratica i</em>WUE was significantly and positively correlated with RH and negatively with VPD. The correlation between the intercellular and atmospheric CO₂ concentration ratio (C_<em>i</em>/C_<em>a</em>) and meteorological factors shifted from non-significant to significant with increasing groundwater depth. C_<em>i</em>/C_<em>a</em> variations in <em>P. euphratica</em> were significantly positively correlated with TEM, VPD, and RO and significantly negatively correlated with RH. Thus, with continued climate warming, <em>P. euphratica</em> in deep-groundwater sample plots may face severe drought stress and growth declines in the future. Understanding the dynamic relationship between <em>i</em>WUE and BAI under varying environmental conditions is crucial for predicting forest responses to climate change and informing conservation strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":7634,"journal":{"name":"Agricultural Water Management","volume":"319 ","pages":"Article 109823"},"PeriodicalIF":6.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145094084","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"农林科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}