FEMS microbes最新文献

{"title":"A chimeric rather than native secretion signal elicits stress-related transcriptional adaption during 75k γ-secalin production in <i>Komagataella phaffii</i>.","authors":"Kai Büchner, Thorsten Schmidt, Roland Kerpes, Thomas Becker","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag046","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/femsmc/xtag046","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Komagataella phaffii</i> (formerly <i>Pichia pastoris</i>) is a popular host for protein production, enabling their targeted application and in-depth study. Among relevant targets are gluten proteins, which are essential for cereal-based food properties, but can also trigger immune reactions such as coeliac disease. Previously, production of rye (<i>Secale cereale</i>) prolamin 75k γ-secalin in K. phaffii was shown to yield the highest titres with the native secretion signal compared to co- and post-translational signals commonly used for enhanced production. Here, we compared the host's transcriptomic response to 75k γ-secalin expressed with the native signal (gSec) or a chimeric OST1-pre-MATα-pro leader (S4gSec) against a non-producing null mutant. Production of the native 75k γ-secalin showed minimal impact; whereas stress-, amino acid transport-, and flocculation-related pathways were upregulated in <i>K. phaffii</i> S4gSec. Transcriptome investigation yielded <i>GCN4</i> as potential marker for transcriptomic stress monitoring during heterologous protein production. Despite <i>K. phaffii</i>'s significance as protein production host, many of its genes are only putatively annotated. Of the 31 (gSec) and 349 (S4gSec) differentially expressed genes, 29% and 59.3% are putative, respectively. This study presents a tentative <i>in silico</i> characterization of these genes, highlighting the importance of continued functional characterization of the <i>K. phaffii</i> genome.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag046"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13656322/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149186591","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Copper stress upregulates oxidative stress response, histidine production, and iron acquisition genes in <i>Escherichia coli</i>.","authors":"Hanna Ainelo, Karola Jõearu, Andres Ainelo, Angela Ivask","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag050","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag050","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Copper is widely used as a fast-acting antimicrobial, yet the strategies that allow bacteria to survive copper stress remain incompletely understood. Here, we characterize the transcriptional responses of <i>Escherichia coli</i> MG1655 to excess ionic copper using RNA sequencing and a genome-wide GFP-based promoter library. We applied 2 mM copper, which slows growth, and 8 mM copper, a near-lethal concentration. RNA-seq revealed extensive transcriptome remodeling, with 487 genes upregulated at 2 mM and 364 at 8 mM. Both concentrations strongly induced canonical copper-responsive systems, oxidative stress defenses, histidine biosynthesis, and multiple iron acquisition pathways-including enterobactin biosynthesis and transport-despite external iron failing to reduce copper toxicity. At 2 mM copper, additional pathways were activated, including heat-shock and protein-folding functions as well as lipid A, methionine and arginine biosynthesis. Copper exposure also repressed large gene sets: 486 genes at 2 mM, enriched for biofilm formation and pH elevation, and 217 genes at 8 mM, enriched for anaerobic metabolism. In contrast to the robust RNA-seq results, we investigated the Horizon Discovery <i>E. coli</i> genome-wide GFP based promoter library as an alternative screening tool. However, in our experiments it showed low signal-to-noise ratios, limiting its suitability for large scale gene expression screening.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag050"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13618251/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149076510","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pathogenicity and intestinal barrier disruptive ability of <i>Malassezia furfur</i> in an alternative model host <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i> is partially alleviated by <i>Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus</i>.","authors":"Chiho Kishida, Kanamu Chikuba, Chinatsu Yamamura, Himari Kanatani, Ayano Tsuru, Satoka Takabayashi, Xueyang Wu, Misaki Okahata, Yoshihiko Tanimoto, Eriko Kage-Nakadai","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag049","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag049","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Malassezia furfur</i> is fungi associated with various diseases; however, the mechanisms underlying its pathogenicity and the relationship between probiotics and fungi remain largely unknown. In the present study, <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i> was used as the model host to evaluate <i>M. furfur</i> pathogenicity. Additionally, effects of lactic acid bacteria against <i>M. furfur</i> pathogenicity were evaluated. Compared to <i>Escherichia coli</i> OP50 (OP, control), both live and heat-killed <i>M. furfur</i> reduced the lifespan and body size of <i>C. elegans</i>, although heat-killed <i>M. furfur</i> was less effective than live <i>M. furfur</i> in lifespan shortening. Furthermore, unlike heat-killed <i>M. furfur</i>, live <i>M. furfur</i> disrupted the nematode intestinal barrier. Loss-of-function mutants of <i>nsy-1</i> and <i>sek-1</i>, which encode components of the MAPK signaling pathway, were susceptible to <i>M. furfur</i>, suggesting their involvement in the defense against <i>M. furfur</i> infection. Expression of genes involved in host defense and of those coding for C-type lectin domain-containing proteins and antimicrobial peptides was upregulated in <i>M. furfur</i>-infected <i>C. elegans. Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus</i> (LR) significantly ameliorated lifespan shortening and body size reduction in <i>M. furfur</i>-infected <i>C. elegans</i> and protected against intestinal barrier disruption, suggesting that LR protects nematodes from <i>M. furfur</i> virulence. This study highlights <i>M. furfur</i> pathogenicity and intestinal barrier disruptive ability in <i>C. elegans</i> and suggests that the <i>M. furfur</i> virulence is partially attenuated by LR.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag049"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13587822/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149009522","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A satellite in the phage universe: isolation and characterization of six novel <i>Streptomyces</i> phages AndoPrime, Ando, Arkania, Jaresh, Tatooine, and Galidraan.","authors":"Moses Kabuu, Annika Ritzerfeld, Biel Badia Roigé, Samy Mechrouki, Maximilian K Nocke, Eva Davoudi, Tom Luthe, Julia Frunzke","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag048","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag048","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Streptomyces</i> are soil-dwelling actinomycetes whose complex multicellular development is tightly linked to the production of bioactive specialized metabolites. The constant phage predation has continuously driven their evolution, whilst the complex development and metabolite secretion has co-evolved in response to the phage pressure shaping these interactions. Here, we report the isolation and characterization of six novel phages with one being a phage satellite, that were isolated as part of a public outreach program within the framework of the priority program SPP2330 involving local high schools. Five of the phages (i.e. AndoPrime, Ando, Arkania, Jaresh, and Tatooine) were isolated on <i>Streptomyces griseus</i>, while Galidraan was isolated on <i>Streptomyces galbus</i>. All phages exhibit a siphoviral morphotype except Arkania, which shows a podoviral morphotype. The isolates are virulent, with the exception of the satellite phage Ando, which is predicted to be a temperate phage. This distinct phage harbors a relatively small 13-kb genome encoding an integrase but lacks genes for lysis and tail proteins, rendering it dependent on its helper phage AndoPrime for productive infection. Collectively, this study expands the repertoire of characterized <i>Streptomyces</i> phages and provides new insights into their diversity and evolutionary dynamics within the complex host, shaping ecological interactions.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag048"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13587820/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149009443","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Phylogeny of coccidian parasites (Eimeriorina, Apicomplexa) infecting shrews.","authors":"Anna Mácová, Roman Hrdlička, Jana Kvičerová","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag047","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag047","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Despite their ecological importance and protected status, the diversity, host associations, and evolutionary relationships of coccidia infecting shrews (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae) remain poorly understood. In particular, the extent of host specificity, the occurrence of host-switching events, and the relationships among coccidian lineages infecting different shrew hosts remain unclear. Here, we investigated coccidian diversity and phylogenetic relationships across several shrew genera and species to clarify parasite-host associations and provide new insights into the evolutionary processes shaping coccidian diversity in shrews. Fecal samples from 188 shrews representing the genera <i>Crocidura, Neomys, Sorex</i>, and <i>Suncus</i>, collected across multiple localities in Europe and two localities in Asia, were examined. Coccidia were detected in one quarter of the samples, generally at low intensities. Phylogenetic analyses based on partial COX1, COX3, and 18S rRNA sequences identified four distinct clusters: three were host-specific (two associated with <i>Crocidura</i> and one with <i>Neomys</i>), whereas one lineage was shared among <i>Crocidura, Neomys</i>, and <i>Sorex</i>. Two <i>Isospora</i> sequences from <i>Sorex araneus</i> clustered with isosporans previously reported from moles. No clear geographic structuring was observed, and the phylogenetic structure also did not mirror the observed morphological characters. The results indicate that host switching and subsequent repeated dispersal occur in eimerians of shrews, suggesting that these processes may be more widespread across small-mammal hosts than previously recognized. The findings expand current knowledge on coccidian diversity in shrews and provide new insights into the host specificity, ecology, and evolutionary dynamics of the parasitic protists.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag047"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-09-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13573310/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148972429","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Plasticity in a bacterial global regulatory switch that drives a shift in antibiotic resistance and virulence.","authors":"Annapaula Correia, Emma J Manners, Benjamin A Evans, Jacob G Malone, Justin O'Grady, Eleni Mavrogiorgou, Sergio Arminu, Manuela Usai, Dixita Naik, Stuart McMillan, Gemma L Kay, Claire Hill, Padhmanand Sudhakar, Emma Meader, Katarzyna Schmidt, Tamas Korcsmaros, Andrew P Desbois, Lisa Crossman, John Wain, Gemma C Langridge","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag044","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag044","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Antibiotic resistance and expression of virulence factors impact the outcome of infection by <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>. Pathogenesis is often modelled using the PAO1 reference strain but laboratory lineages vary in the sequence and activity of MexT, a global regulator impacting virulence, biofilm formation, and ciprofloxacin resistance. We defined the impact of active versus inactive MexT in PAO1 and observed transcriptomic changes affecting the expression of ~900 genes. Phenotyping revealed altered metabolism, antibiotic resistance, and virulence, resulting in striking variation across a 'single' model organism. We propose that antibiotic resistance promotes plasticity in <i>mexT</i> accounting for variation across lineages. We introduced antibiotic resistance into clinical <i>P. aeruginosa</i> isolates and observed mutations in <i>mexT</i> when selective pressure was removed, supporting the proposed evolutionary pathway. Overall, we have demonstrated the transcriptomic basis of MexT as a phenotypic switch in PAO1 and implicated antibiotic resistance as a cause of changes in <i>mexT</i>. Furthermore, MexS/MexT-regulated efflux is implicated in the antibiotic stress response and virulence, helping identify the mechanisms for rapid phenotypic switching through <i>mexT</i> and confirming that PAO1 is unlike most isolates. Improved understanding of the regulatory changes linked to antibiotic resistance is particularly relevant to <i>P. aeruginosa</i> where cycles of antibiotic treatment are common.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag044"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13543918/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148898516","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vulnerable microbial communities in Atacama-Altiplano wetlands: modern analogs of ancient ecosystems with implications for sustainability and conservation.","authors":"Purificación López-García, David Moreira, Ana Gutiérrez-Preciado, José M López-García, Ana I López-Archilla, Karim Benzerara, Paola Bertolino, Laura Eme, Carolina F Cubillos, Cristina Dorador, Pablo Aguilar","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag045","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag045","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The Altiplano-Puna plateau lies at ∼4000 m above sea level in the volcanic Andes cordillera. Together with the adjacent Atacama Desert, it forms one of the most hyperarid regions on the planet. Wetlands are rare, influenced by hydrothermalism and, due to high evaporation rates, dominated by saline lakes and ephemeral ponds associated with salt flats (collectively called <i>salares</i>). Long thought to be lifeless, these environments host microbial ecosystems adapted to extreme conditions in terms of temperature, pH, salinity, ultraviolet radiation, and high concentrations of metals and metalloids, including arsenic, copper, and lithium. Climate change and mining activities, notably lithium extraction for \"green energies,\" are causing the desiccation of these systems. Their microbial biodiversity risks being lost before it is studied. In this review, we highlight three major active research areas that provide added value to Atacama-Altiplano microbiomes beyond their intrinsic ecosystemic importance, identifying knowledge gaps and future research trends at the fundamental-applied science interface. First, studying these poorly known microbes may help us understand and exploit molecular adaptations to extreme conditions and better define the limits of life, with implications for astrobiology. Second, Atacama-Altiplano phototrophic microbial mats and microbialites can be suitable geochemical and biological analogs of ancient microbial ecosystems and reveal ecological and evolutionary aspects of paleoenvironments. Third, these microbial ecosystems represent an untapped reservoir of robust enzymes for biocatalysis, as well as environmentally friendly solutions for sustainable copper and lithium mining, recycling, and bioremediation processes. Collectively, these arguments justify the urgency of prioritizing these unique microbial ecosystems as conservation targets.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag045"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13556470/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148921627","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessing cell survival and biosignature preservation of the extremely thermoacidophilic archaeon <i>Acidianus manzaensis</i> after exposure to Mars-like conditions.","authors":"Sebastian V Gfellner, Janina Groninga, Cyril Colas, Guillaume Gabant, Andreas Lorek, Stephen Garland, Mickael Baqué","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag043","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/femsmc/xtag043","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Considering the harsh surface conditions on Mars, terrestrial organisms that can survive and remain detectable after exposure to similar conditions provide invaluable models for guiding current and future search-for-life missions. To this end, we evaluated the extremophilic archaeon <i>Acidianus manzaensis</i> grown on ESA01-E Mars analog material as a model organism. We exposed cell-mineral mixtures to one month of desiccation and 2 weeks of Mars-like conditions in a Mars simulation chamber to evaluate the potential for cell survival after exposure to these conditions. In the search for reliable biomarkers in other planetary environments, such as Mars, molecules that are stable over geological timescales while preserving information indicative of their potential biological origin are crucial. Thiophene-bearing quinones fulfill these requirements, and thiophenes, which are their basic moieties, have been discovered on Mars. Therefore, we analysed the thiophene-bearing quinone composition of <i>A. manzaensis</i> using mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and discussed potential molecular alterations. Successful recultivation after 1 month of desiccation and 2 weeks of exposure to Mars-like conditions proved the durability of the organism and its capability for cell recovery after exposure to extreme conditions, paving the way for further investigation.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag043"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-07-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13471030/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148765469","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Is a constitutive red-shift an advantage for oxygenic photosynthesis under M dwarf starlight? Insights from <i>Acaryochloris marina</i> sp. str. Moss Beach.","authors":"Elisabetta Liistro, Beatrice Boccia, Mary Niki Parenteau, Nancy Y Kiang, Nicoletta La Rocca","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag042","DOIUrl":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag042","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In the next decades, space telescope missions will search for life evidence on exoplanets, focusing on robust biosignatures associated with oxygenic photosynthesis, including atmospheric oxygen accumulation and the Vegetation Red-Edge in surface reflectance spectra. Many habitable rocky exoplanets orbit M dwarf stars, whose spectral energy distribution may condition the rise and evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. M dwarf stars emit predominantly far-red (700-750 nm) and near-infrared (750-1000 nm) light, and relatively little visible (400-700 nm) radiation, which on Earth predominantly drives photochemistry in most oxygenic phototrophs. Previous experiments proved some oxygenic phototrophs can photosynthesize under simulated M dwarf light but less efficiently than under solar radiation simulated in the range 365-780 nm. Indeed, tested organisms present photosynthetic apparatus evolved to harvest Sun's visible light, however, M dwarfs' irradiation might select adaptations optimized for harvesting far-red/near-infrared light. We measured sensitivities of a far-red/near-infrared-utilizing cyanobacterium, <i>Acaryochloris marina</i> sp. str. Moss Beach to simulated M dwarf spectrum and primeval anoxic, CO₂-rich atmosphere. This strain constitutively presents a high content of chlorophyll <i>d</i>, with <i>in vivo</i> absorption peak at 710 nm. Its permanently red-shifted photosynthetic apparatus required no acclimation to the stellar spectrum, maintaining strong growth and oxygen production, higher than that registered under simulated solar light. Moreover, abundant chlorophyll <i>d</i> caused a shift in whole-cell reflectance: the red-edge was beyond 700 nm, resulting in a <i>Chl</i> d-<i>near-infrared-edge</i>. Overall, a potentially similar metabolism on exoplanets orbiting M dwarfs could successfully produce both a gaseous biosignature and a characteristic surface biosignature.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag042"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13459949/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148714780","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Life resists chemistry not conditions.","authors":"Adrienne Kish","doi":"10.1093/femsmc/xtag041","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/femsmc/xtag041","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Extremophiles are used to study both the limits of life and its potential elsewhere. Categories are commonly employed to describe extreme conditions, however, changing the focus to the underlying chemical alterations of cellular biomolecules permits a clearer delineation of the limits of life. This also provides a common basis for interdisciplinary studies of life in extreme environments intersecting biology, chemistry, geology, environmental and planetary sciences. Using this perspective, four general principles can be drawn from the past decades of research into extremophiles: 1-Microbial survival after exposure to environmental stressors is challenged by damage incurred at the molecular level, 2-Damage-susceptibility of cellular (macro)molecules vary by structure, chemical composition, and surrounding molecules, 3-Local physicochemical states alter the chemistry underpinning microbial survival, and 4-The same macromolecular chemical and/or structural damages produced by different stressors can be resisted by the same cellular mechanisms. These general principles provide a common basis for interdisciplinary studies of the limits of life. This chemistry-focused approach has implications for defining the limits of life, paleoenvironment reconstruction, site selection for sampling, and choice of appropriate model systems for development of detection methods for microbial cells and extraction of molecules. This approach also contributes to the field of astrobiology, constraining the concept of habitability in the solar system and exoplanets. Descriptive terms are useful in science, but for extremophile microbiology and astrobiology, it is useful to recognize that life resists chemistry, not conditions.</p>","PeriodicalId":73024,"journal":{"name":"FEMS microbes","volume":"7 ","pages":"xtag041"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2026-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13479923/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148802496","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}