Bioelectronic medicine最新文献

{"title":"Artificial intelligence enhanced sensors - enabling technologies to next-generation healthcare and biomedical platform.","authors":"Chan Wang,&nbsp;Tianyiyi He,&nbsp;Hong Zhou,&nbsp;Zixuan Zhang,&nbsp;Chengkuo Lee","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00118-1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00118-1","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The fourth industrial revolution has led to the development and application of health monitoring sensors that are characterized by digitalization and intelligence. These sensors have extensive applications in medical care, personal health management, elderly care, sports, and other fields, providing people with more convenient and real-time health services. However, these sensors face limitations such as noise and drift, difficulty in extracting useful information from large amounts of data, and lack of feedback or control signals. The development of artificial intelligence has provided powerful tools and algorithms for data processing and analysis, enabling intelligent health monitoring, and achieving high-precision predictions and decisions. By integrating the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, and health monitoring sensors, it becomes possible to realize a closed-loop system with the functions of real-time monitoring, data collection, online analysis, diagnosis, and treatment recommendations. This review focuses on the development of healthcare artificial sensors enhanced by intelligent technologies from the aspects of materials, device structure, system integration, and application scenarios. Specifically, this review first introduces the great advances in wearable sensors for monitoring respiration rate, heart rate, pulse, sweat, and tears; implantable sensors for cardiovascular care, nerve signal acquisition, and neurotransmitter monitoring; soft wearable electronics for precise therapy. Then, the recent advances in volatile organic compound detection are highlighted. Next, the current developments of human-machine interfaces, AI-enhanced multimode sensors, and AI-enhanced self-sustainable systems are reviewed. Last, a perspective on future directions for further research development is also provided. In summary, the fusion of artificial intelligence and artificial sensors will provide more intelligent, convenient, and secure services for next-generation healthcare and biomedical applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"17"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10394931/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9986584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Stimulation parameters for directional vagus nerve stimulation.","authors":"Joel Villalobos, Sophie C Payne, Glenn M Ward, Sofianos Andrikopoulos, Tomoko Hyakumura, Richard J MacIsaac, James B Fallon","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00117-2","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s42234-023-00117-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Autonomic nerve stimulation is used as a treatment for a growing number of diseases. We have previously demonstrated that application of efferent vagus nerve stimulation (eVNS) has promising glucose lowering effects in a rat model of type 2 diabetes. This paradigm combines high frequency pulsatile stimulation to block nerve activation in the afferent direction with low frequency stimulation to activate the efferent nerve section. In this study we explored the effects of the parameters for nerve blocking on the ability to inhibit nerve activation in the afferent direction. The overarching aim is to establish a blocking stimulation strategy that could be applied using commercially available implantable pulse generators used in the clinic.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Male rats (n = 20) had the anterior abdominal vagus nerve implanted with a multi-electrode cuff. Evoked compound action potentials (ECAP) were recorded at the proximal end of the electrode cuff. The efficacy of high frequency stimulation to block the afferent ECAP was assessed by changes in the threshold and saturation level of the response. Blocking frequency and duty cycle of the blocking pulses were varied while maintaining a constant 4 mA current amplitude.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>During application of blocking at lower frequencies (≤ 4 kHz), the ECAP threshold increased (ANOVA, p < 0.001) and saturation level decreased (p < 0.001). Application of higher duty cycles (> 70%) led to an increase in evoked neural response threshold (p < 0.001) and a decrease in saturation level (p < 0.001). During the application of a constant pulse width and frequency (1 or 1.6 kHz, > 70% duty cycle), the charge delivered per pulse had a significant influence on the magnitude of the block (ANOVA, p = 0.003), and was focal (< 2 mm range).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This study has determined the range of frequencies, duty cycles and currents of high frequency stimulation that generate an efficacious, focal axonal block of a predominantly C-fiber tract. These findings could have potential application for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10353120/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9836317","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High frequency alternating current neurostimulation decreases nocifensive behavior in a disc herniation model of lumbar radiculopathy.","authors":"Lauren Savannah Dewberry,&nbsp;Ken Porche,&nbsp;Travis Koenig,&nbsp;Kyle D Allen,&nbsp;Kevin J Otto","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00119-0","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00119-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>The purpose of this study was to evaluate if kilohertz frequency alternating current (KHFAC) stimulation of peripheral nerve could serve as a treatment for lumbar radiculopathy. Prior work shows that KHFAC stimulation can treat sciatica resulting from chronic sciatic nerve constriction. Here, we evaluate if KHFAC stimulation is also beneficial in a more physiologic model of low back pain which mimics nucleus pulposus (NP) impingement of a lumbar dorsal root ganglion (DRG).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>To mimic a lumbar radiculopathy, autologous tail NP was harvested and placed upon the right L5 nerve root and DRG. During the same surgery, a cuff electrode was implanted around the sciatic nerve with wires routed to a headcap for delivery of KHFAC stimulation. Male Lewis rats (3 mo., n = 18) were separated into 3 groups: NP injury + KHFAC stimulation (n = 7), NP injury + sham cuff (n = 6), and sham injury + sham cuff (n = 5). Prior to surgery and for 2 weeks following surgery, animal tactile sensitivity, gait, and static weight bearing were evaluated.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>KHFAC stimulation of the sciatic nerve decreased behavioral evidence of pain and disability. Without KHFAC stimulation, injured animals had heightened tactile sensitivity compared to baseline (p < 0.05), with tactile allodynia reversed during KHFAC stimulation (p < 0.01). Midfoot flexion during locomotion was decreased after injury but improved with KHFAC stimulation (p < 0.05). Animals also placed more weight on their injured limb when KHFAC stimulation was applied (p < 0.05). Electrophysiology measurements at end point showed decreased, but not blocked, compound nerve action potentials with KHFAC stimulation (p < 0.05).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>KHFAC stimulation decreases hypersensitivity but does not cause additional gait compensations. This supports the idea that KHFAC stimulation applied to a peripheral nerve may be able to treat chronic pain resulting from sciatic nerve root inflammation.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"15"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-07-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10337121/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9814437","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Correction: Neuromodulation for recovery of trunk and sitting functions following spinal cord injury: a comprehensive review of the literature.","authors":"Niraj Singh Tharu,&nbsp;Arnold Yu Lok Wong,&nbsp;Yong-Ping Zheng","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00116-3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00116-3","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"14"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-06-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10311832/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9736949","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Remote collection of electrophysiological data with brain wearables: opportunities and challenges.","authors":"Richard James Sugden,&nbsp;Viet-Linh Luke Pham-Kim-Nghiem-Phu,&nbsp;Ingrid Campbell,&nbsp;Alberto Leon,&nbsp;Phedias Diamandis","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00114-5","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00114-5","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Collection of electroencephalographic (EEG) data provides an opportunity to non-invasively study human brain plasticity, learning and the evolution of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Traditionally, due to sophisticated hardware, EEG studies have been largely limited to research centers which restrict both testing contexts and repeated longitudinal measures. The emergence of low-cost \"wearable\" EEG devices now provides the prospect of frequent and remote monitoring of the human brain for a variety of physiological and pathological brain states. In this manuscript, we survey evidence that EEG wearables provide high-quality data and review various software used for remote data collection. We then discuss the growing body of evidence supporting the feasibility of remote and longitudinal EEG data collection using wearables including a discussion of potential biomedical applications of these protocols. Lastly, we discuss some additional challenges needed for EEG wearable research to gain further widespread adoption.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"12"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-06-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10283168/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9763515","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Objective wearable measures and subjective questionnaires for predicting response to neurostimulation in people with chronic pain.","authors":"Robert Heros,&nbsp;Denis Patterson,&nbsp;Frank Huygen,&nbsp;Ioannis Skaribas,&nbsp;David Schultz,&nbsp;Derron Wilson,&nbsp;Michael Fishman,&nbsp;Steven Falowski,&nbsp;Gregory Moore,&nbsp;Jan Willem Kallewaard,&nbsp;Soroush Dehghan,&nbsp;Anahita Kyani,&nbsp;Misagh Mansouri","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00115-4","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s42234-023-00115-4","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Neurostimulation is an effective therapy for treating and management of refractory chronic pain. However, the complex nature of pain and infrequent in-clinic visits, determining subject's long-term response to the therapy remains difficult. Frequent measurement of pain in this population can help with early diagnosis, disease progression monitoring, and evaluating long-term therapeutic efficacy. This paper compares the utilization of the common subjective patient-reported outcomes with objective measures captured through a wearable device for predicting the response to neurostimulation therapy.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>Data is from the ongoing international prospective post-market REALITY clinical study, which collects long-term patient-reported outcomes from 557 subjects implanted by Spinal Cord Stimulator (SCS) or Dorsal Root Ganglia (DRG) neurostimulators. The REALITY sub-study was designed for collecting additional wearables data on a subset of 20 participants implanted with SCS devices for up to six months post implantation. We first implemented a combination of dimensionality reduction algorithms and correlation analyses to explore the mathematical relationships between objective wearable data and subjective patient-reported outcomes. We then developed machine learning models to predict therapy outcome based on the subject's response to the numerical rating scale (NRS) or patient global impression of change (PGIC).</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Principal component analysis showed that psychological aspects of pain were associated with heart rate variability, while movement-related measures were strongly associated with patient-reported outcomes related to physical function and social role participation. Our machine learning models using objective wearable data predicted PGIC and NRS outcomes with high accuracy without subjective data. The prediction accuracy was higher for PGIC compared with the NRS using subjective-only measures primarily driven by the patient satisfaction feature. Similarly, the PGIC questions reflect an overall change since the study onset and could be a better predictor of long-term neurostimulation therapy outcome.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The significance of this study is to introduce a novel use of wearable data collected from a subset of patients to capture multi-dimensional aspects of pain and compare the prediction power with the subjective data from a larger data set. The discovery of pain digital biomarkers could result in a better understanding of the patient's response to therapy and their general well-being.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"13"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-06-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10283222/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"10086065","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Neuromodulation for recovery of trunk and sitting functions following spinal cord injury: a comprehensive review of the literature.","authors":"Niraj Singh Tharu,&nbsp;Arnold Yu Lok Wong,&nbsp;Yong-Ping Zheng","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00113-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00113-6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Trunk stability is crucial for people with trunk paralysis resulting from spinal cord injuries (SCI), as it plays a significant role in performing daily life activities and preventing from fall-related accidents. Traditional therapy used assistive methods or seating modifications to provide passive assistance while restricting their daily functionality. The recent emergence of neuromodulation techniques has been reported as an alternative therapy that could improve trunk and sitting functions following SCI. The aim of this review was to provide a broad perspective on the existing studies using neuromodulation techniques and identify their potentials in terms of trunk recovery for people with SCI. Five databases were searched (PubMed, Embase, Science Direct, Medline-Ovid, and Web of Science) from inception to December 31, 2022 to identify relevant studies. A total of 21 studies, involving 117 participants with SCI, were included in this review. According to these studies, neuromodulation significantly improved the reaching ability, restored trunk stability and seated posture, increased sitting balance, as well as elevated activity of trunk and back muscles, which were considered early predictors of trunk recovery after SCI. However, there is limited evidence regarding neuromodulation techniques on the improvement of trunk and sitting functions. Therefore, future large-scale randomized controlled trials are warranted to validate these preliminary findings.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"11"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10226194/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9745477","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"3D bioprinting patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell models of Alzheimer's disease using a smart bioink.","authors":"Claire Benwood,&nbsp;Jonathan Walters-Shumka,&nbsp;Kali Scheck,&nbsp;Stephanie M Willerth","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00112-7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s42234-023-00112-7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, is becoming increasingly prevalent as our population ages. It is characterized by the buildup of amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tangles containing hyperphosphorylated-tau. The current treatments for AD do not prevent the long-term progression of the disease and pre-clinical models often do not accurately represent its complexity. Bioprinting combines cells and biomaterials to create 3D structures that replicate the native tissue environment and can be used as a tool in disease modeling or drug screening.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This work differentiated both healthy and diseased patient-derived human induced pluripotent stems cells (hiPSCs) into neural progenitor cells (NPCs) that were bioprinted using the Aspect RX1 microfluidic printer into dome-shaped constructs. The combination of cells, bioink, and puromorphamine (puro)-releasing microspheres were used to mimic the in vivo environment and direct the differentiation of the NPCs into basal forebrain-resembling cholinergic neurons (BFCN). These tissue models were then characterized for cell viability, immunocytochemistry, and electrophysiology to evaluate their functionality and physiology for use as disease-specific neural models.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Tissue models were successfully bioprinted and the cells were viable for analysis after 30- and 45-day cultures. The neuronal and cholinergic markers β-tubulin III (Tuj1), forkhead box G1 (FOXG1), and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) were identified as well as the AD markers amyloid beta and tau. Further, immature electrical activity was observed when the cells were excited with potassium chloride and acetylcholine.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This work shows the successful development of bioprinted tissue models incorporating patient derived hiPSCs. Such models can potentially be used as a tool to screen promising drug candidates for treating AD. Further, this model could be used to increase the understanding of AD progression. The use of patient derived cells also shows the potential of this model for use in personalized medicine applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"10"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-05-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10207712/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9875631","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vagus nerve stimulation in the non-human primate: implantation methodology, characterization of nerve anatomy, target engagement and experimental applications.","authors":"Aaron J Suminski, Abigail Z Rajala, Rasmus M Birn, Ellie M Mueller, Margaret E Malone, Jared P Ness, Caitlyn Filla, Kevin Brunner, Alan B McMillan, Samuel O Poore, Justin C Williams, Dhanabalan Murali, Andrea Brzeczkowski, Samuel A Hurley, Aaron M Dingle, Weifeng Zeng, Wendell B Lake, Kip A Ludwig, Luis C Populin","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00111-8","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s42234-023-00111-8","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a FDA approved therapy regularly used to treat a variety of neurological disorders that impact the central nervous system (CNS) including epilepsy and stroke. Putatively, the therapeutic efficacy of VNS results from its action on neuromodulatory centers via projections of the vagus nerve to the solitary tract nucleus. Currently, there is not an established large animal model that facilitates detailed mechanistic studies exploring how VNS impacts the function of the CNS, especially during complex behaviors requiring motor action and decision making.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We describe the anatomical organization, surgical methodology to implant VNS electrodes on the left gagus nerve and characterization of target engagement/neural interface properties in a non-human primate (NHP) model of VNS that permits chronic stimulation over long periods of time. Furthermore, we describe the results of pilot experiments in a small number of NHPs to demonstrate how this preparation might be used in an animal model capable of performing complex motor and decision making tasks.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>VNS electrode impedance remained constant over months suggesting a stable interface. VNS elicited robust activation of the vagus nerve which resulted in decreases of respiration rate and/or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in expired air, but not changes in heart rate in both awake and anesthetized NHPs.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>We anticipate that this preparation will be very useful to study the mechanisms underlying the effects of VNS for the treatment of conditions such as epilepsy and depression, for which VNS is extensively used, as well as for the study of the neurobiological basis underlying higher order functions such as learning and memory.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"9"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-04-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10148417/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9391366","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Importance of timing optimization for closed-loop applications of vagus nerve stimulation.","authors":"Ramanamurthy V Mylavarapu, Vivek V Kanumuri, Juan Pablo de Rivero Vaccari, Amrit Misra, David W McMillan, Patrick D Ganzer","doi":"10.1186/s42234-023-00110-9","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s42234-023-00110-9","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In recent decades, vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy has become widely used for clinical applications including epilepsy, depression, and enhancing the effects of rehabilitation. However, several questions remain regarding optimization of this therapy to maximize clinical outcomes. Although stimulation parameters such as pulse width, amplitude, and frequency are well studied, the timing of stimulation delivery both acutely (with respect to disease events) and chronically (over the timeline of a disease's progression) has generally received less attention. Leveraging such information would provide a framework for the implementation of next generation closed-loop VNS therapies. In this mini-review, we summarize a number of VNS therapies and discuss (1) general timing considerations for these applications and (2) open questions that could lead to further therapy optimization.</p>","PeriodicalId":72363,"journal":{"name":"Bioelectronic medicine","volume":"9 1","pages":"8"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-04-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10134677/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9714800","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}