Juridica International最新文献

{"title":"The ‘Public Order’ Parachute in Combating Racism and Xenophobia","authors":"C. Ginter, Anneli Soo","doi":"10.12697/ji.2022.31.02","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2022.31.02","url":null,"abstract":"The European Commission has initiated infringement proceedings against virtually half of the Member States, accusing many of, inter alia, failing to take the necessary measures to ensure that racist and xenophobic hate crimes are effectively criminalised. The article looks at the right of a Member State to limit prosecution for incitement of violence or hatred to acts that are carried out in a manner likely to disturb the public order. The authors argue that application of the ‘risk to public order’ criterion if interpreted appropriately, will in most cases reduce the threat of ‘taking it too far’. They argue also that there is a risk of confusion between ‘public order’ and ‘public nuisance’, due to the national criminal courts being more familiar with the latter. This could lead to unreasonably loose application of criminal punishments and pose a risk breaching the nullum crimen nulla poena sine lege certa principle. Perhaps because of having suffered censorship and absence of fundamental rights under the Soviet Union, Estonian society voices strong concerns about criminalisation of hate speech. In the authors’ view, these concerns may be reduced by narrow interpretation of the ‘risk to public order’ notion.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47837328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The European Court of Human Rights and the Principle of Foreseeability (Lex Certa and Stricta): How to Determine Whether an Offence Is Clearly Defined in Criminal Law","authors":"Mario Truu","doi":"10.12697/ji.2022.31.07","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2022.31.07","url":null,"abstract":"The European Court of Human Rights has applied the principle of foreseeability (lex certa and lex stricta) on many occasions to determine whether a person could have foreseen at the time of the act that the act matches the description of an offence in a criminal-law provision and is therefore punishable. This raises a question that has been decisive for the outcome of many cases: how can one ascertain whether the wording for an offence is sufficiently clear? The article examines the guidelines set forth by the European Court of Human Rights for the use of the principle of foreseeability and whether it is possible to speak of a standard on the basis of the case law for the wording for an offence and the associated interpretation, in aims of ensuring compliance with the principle. Also discussed are the problems that have arisen in connection with the issue and what questions have yet to be answered. Proceeding from the case law, the author offers conclusions as to what could form a basis for determining whether a person should have foreseen liability and punishment incurred via commission of the act in question.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43209864","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rebuilding the Court System of Estonia after the Communist Regime","authors":"Katre Luhamaa, Merike Ristikivi","doi":"10.12697/ji.2022.31.05","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2022.31.05","url":null,"abstract":"A thorough and fundamental reorganisation of the Estonian judicial system and replacement of judges took place in 1987–1993. The judicial system of the Estonian SSR was part of the repressive communist state power, with the courts’ independence being very limited: the courts in Estonia were subject to the control of the USSR’s courts, and the law was applied in close co operation with the executive power. The article shows how the perception of the judiciary and the role of judges changed during the transition period. The main focus is on the stages of judicial reform from the beginning of the transitional period until the implementation of the new Courts Act in 1993. The article analyses how the role of the judiciary in the emerging democratic society was seen in the transition era’s debates, which addressed changes in the professional requirements for judges and the process of becoming a judge.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45605866","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Duty of Diligence of a Tenderer in EU Public Procurement Law","authors":"Kadri Härginen","doi":"10.12697/ji.2022.31.08","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2022.31.08","url":null,"abstract":"The article analyses the duty of diligence of a tenderer under EU public procurement law. Hitherto, the subject has not been examined in the academic literature, with such exceptions as a brief introduction to the topic in a 2009 presentation by M.A. Simovart. Therefore, the article focuses primarily on a certain duty of diligence of tenderers that has been recognised by the CJEU as an independent legal requirement under the EU’s public procurement law. Emphasis is placed on elucidating which types of obligations the duty of diligence imposes on a tenderer, which requirements a diligent tenderer shall not be subjected to, and the situations in which obligations may occasionally arise under specific circumstances – such as those in light of the tenderer’s right to review.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2022-10-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47412187","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Applicability of the Digital Content Directive and Sales of Goods Directive to Goods with Digital Elements","authors":"K. Sein","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.04","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.04","url":null,"abstract":"There is an ongoing trend to develop inter-connected or ‘smart’ consumer goods, which either contain digital content (such as software) or use digital services for certain of their functions (as with the navigation system of a smart car). The new Digital Content Directive and Sales of Goods Directive create a legal presumption that the seller of smart goods is contractually liable not only for the tangible item and embedded digital software but also for the inter-connected digital services. However, the article shows that much room remains for party autonomy as express agreement in a sales contract may limit the liability of the seller even for the operating system of smart goods and, thereby, override reasonable consumer expectations. The situation becomes even more complicated when the ‘digital element’ of the goods consists of free and open-source software: in these cases, the ‘separately bought’ digital content does not even fall within the scope of the Digital Content Directive, with the result that the seller is not liable for the digital content under the Sales of Goods Directive and the digital content provider is not liable for it under the Digital Content Directive. Therefore, the article argues that the new contract-law package does not raise the level of consumer protection in respect of smart goods as much as it might initially seem to.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48168698","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Are Class Actions Finally (Re)conquering Europe? Some Remarks on Directive 2020/1828","authors":"A. Stadler","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.03","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.03","url":null,"abstract":"The article provides a brief overview of the background of the new European Union directive on representative actions for protection of the collective interest of consumers (Directive 2020/1828). It describes the basic elements of the directive and explains the major changes that have occurred since the European Commission issued its Recommendation document on collective redress in 2013. The author highlights the issues of the scope of application of the directive, of legal standing to bring a representative action, of collective settlements, and of the problem of funding for collective actions. This discussion puts emphasis on the need to extend legal standing to individual members of the group and articulates an appeal to national legislatures, particularly in Germany, to be more open-minded towards commercial litigation funding and the establishment of a public access-to-justice fund designed to guarantee the effectiveness of Directive 2020/1828 and its implementation.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43353762","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Die funktionale Methode bei der Rechtsvergleichung","authors":"J. Veigel","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.09","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.09","url":null,"abstract":"The article deals with the nature and versatile application of the functional method, a tool used in comparative law to examine institutions of the law across jurisdictions. The approach has played a role in projects to render laws uniform and contributed to the modernisation of the German Civil Code. Although the functional method is regarded as the most fundamental technique in comparative law, neither Ernst Rabel nor well-known adherents such as Konrad Zweigert and Hein Kötz expressed any precise strategy for functional comparative research. The reader is guided through the essential assumptions and the approach of the functional method, on which legal comparativists show the greatest consensus with regard to the following steps: creating country-specific reports, putting the social problem in words (tertium comparationis), and finally conducting a critical valuation of the results found. The paper then presents an overview of the functional method’s practical application, criticisms of it, and modified approaches, culminating in a proposal related to the basic assumptions behind the method.","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47484060","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Online Hearings in Proceedings before International Commercial Courts","authors":"Selina Domhan","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.07","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.07","url":null,"abstract":"The paper presents analysis of the use of online hearings in proceedings before international commercial courts. International commercial courts are not a new phenomenon, with the Commercial Court of England and Wales having been established in London already in 1895. What is new is the increased prominence of such courts over the last six years. \u0000The article focuses on three jurisdictions in Europe: Germany, France, and the Netherlands. The author examines to what extent communication technologies are being used in proceedings before international commercial courts in Europe and also whether – and, if so, how – the COVID 19 pandemic has affected this. The overall finding is that there has been increased demand for video hearings since the beginning of the pandemic, if not earlier. The article is focused primarily on cross-border taking of evidence by means of videoconferencing. In this context, it highlights the changes in the recast of the Taking of Evidence Regulation. The author concludes that the commercial courts presented will most likely not benefit from the recast.\u0000","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42765225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Zehn Jahre gemeinsame rechtswissenschaftliche Seminare Tartu-Konstanz – eine Erfolgsgeschichte!","authors":"A. Stadler","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.01","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.01","url":null,"abstract":"Im Sommer des Jahres 2020 jährte sich der Beginn der Zusammenarbeit unserer Universitäten zum 10. Mal. Die enge rechtswissenschaftliche Kooperation mit gemeinsamen Seminaren von Professoren, Studierenden und Doktoranden nahm im Juni 2010 mit dem ersten vom DAAD geförderten Seminar in Tartu seinen Anfang – ins Leben gerufen von den Professoren Paul Varul, Rainer Hausmann und Astrid Stadler. Für mich war es die erste Reise nach Estland und es sollten noch einige in dieses kleine, aber faszinierende Land folgen. Das erste Seminar wurde unter dem Obertitel „Die Harmonisierung des Europäischen Privat- und Verfahrensrechts” abgehalten und bot auch für die Gruppe von deutschen Studierenden erstmals die Gelegenheit, Estland und einer der ältesten ehemals deutschsprachigen Universitäten in Europa kennenzulernen. Wie auch später waren wir alle vom Charme der Stadt und der Universität begeistert und unsere Studierenden machten die für viele überraschende Entdeckung einer gemeinsamen Geschichte und rechtlichen Tradition. \u0000Es folgten in fast jährlicher Abfolge weitere Seminare, die abwechselnd in Konstanz und Tartu bzw. Tallinn (Konferenzsprache überwiegend Englisch) abgehalten wurden und von dem „Kern“ Irene Kull, Merike Ristikivi, Marju Luts-Sootak, Astrid Stadler und den jeweiligen Nachfolgern auf dem Konstanzer Lehrstuhl von Rainer Hausmann, zunächst Christoph Althammer, dann ab 2014 Michael Stürner und dem Konstanzer Rechtshistoriker (bis 2020) Matthias Armgardt durchgeführt wurden: im Frühjahr 2011 in Konstanz unter dem Titel „Die schwächere Partei – ein wechselvolles Konzept des Privatrechts“; 2013 in Tartu/Tallinn („Handelsbeziehungen in Europa: die Perspektive des Privatrechts und Internationalen Privatrechts“); im Herbst 2014 in Konstanz („Neue Wege zur Harmonisierung des Privatrechts in Europa – Lehren aus dem Einheitlichen Europäischen Kaufrecht und künftige Herausforderungen“); im Dezember 2016 in Konstanz („Privatrecht im Zeitalter der Digitalisierung“); im November 2017 in Tartu/Tallinn („Vergleichendes Privatrecht und EU- Recht“); im Dezember 2018 in Konstanz („Vertrag und Delikt“) und zuletzt im Winter 2019 in Tartu/Tallinn („Personen und persönliche Freiheit im Privatrecht“). Die Veranstaltung im Oktober 2014 wurde ausnahmsweise in größerem Format und unter Beteiligung weiterer Professoren (Burckhard Hess, MPI Luxemburg; Soazick Kerneis, Paris; Nils Janssen, Münster; Pascal Pichonnaz, Fribourg) durchgeführt – wie es sich für das große Thema der Harmonisierung des europäischen Privatrechts gehörte. Die für den Herbst 2020 in Konstanz geplante Jubiläumsveranstaltung war schon genau geplant, wurde aber bedauerlicher Weise wie so vieles in 2020 ein Opfer der Covid19-Pandemie. Die Veranstaltung kann hoffentlich schon in 2021 nachgeholt werden. \u0000Die Seminare waren für die deutschen Teilnehmer immer ein großer persönlicher und wissenschaftlicher Gewinn, da sich immer schnell ein freundschaftliches Miteinander der Seminarteilnehmer einstellte und di","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48630053","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Electronic Seal as a Solution to Prove the Intent of a Legal Entity","authors":"Laura Kask","doi":"10.12697/ji.2021.30.08","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.12697/ji.2021.30.08","url":null,"abstract":"Because the digital environment does not recognise national borders and with transactions increasingly taking place across them, an electronic environment that affords interoperability is important for the competitiveness of the European Union. Debate about whether the identification of individuals in the digital environment should be a norm and obligation or, instead, the digital environment should be available as a form of expression of our privacy and anonymity has not waned. Although legal entities act through natural persons, solutions are available whereby a natural person’s e-signature may be replaced in an electronic environment by an electronic seal, or e-seal, of a legal entity. Although the general requirements related to e-seals were established in Estonian legislation already in 2009 and on EU level with the eIDAS Regulation in 2016, the legal meaning of an e-seal has remained unclear in most EU countries, even Estonia, where the uptake of such solutions is widespread. \u0000In light of this context, the article examines in which cases the e-seal of a legal entity could be equal in legal meaning to a hand-written signature or an e-signature of a natural person. Thus, the article addresses challenges visible in Estonian and EU-level legal acts that have left the legal meaning of the e-seal unclear. As some EU member states have declared a legal meaning for e-seals divergences among the regulatory approaches examined lead to issues that erode interoperability and the mutual recognition of e-seals in cross-border transactions, both of which would be expected from a genuine digital single market. From the examples of other Member States, a recommendation that the Estonian legislator amend the private-law acts is offered, with recommended wording that should eliminate the gaps in law. \u0000In private-law transactions, non-compliance with the form requirements provided by law or agreed upon between the parties generally results in the nullity of the transaction. According to the law currently in force, failure to comply with a requirement for a hand written signature (written form) or with equivalent requirements connected with electronic form as provided for by law constitutes non-compliance with a formal requirement. Should the Estonian legislation be changed in accordance with the suggestions presented, paying attention to its level when using the e-seal remains crucial. At the same time, it is important to take into account the purpose of the formal requirement, the actual intention of the parties, and the principle of good faith when deciding on the consequences, whether of the current law or of potential changes. When one is using a tool other than the parties' agreement (be it an e-signature or an e-seal), it is important to consider the purpose of the agreement if wishing to determine the parties' actual intention and analyse the legal entity's behaviour and, hence, whether the transaction has been performed.\u0000","PeriodicalId":55758,"journal":{"name":"Juridica International","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-10-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48689324","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}