Astroparticle Physics最新文献

{"title":"Data quality control system and long-term performance monitor of LHAASO-KM2A","authors":"Zhen Cao ,&nbsp;F. Aharonian ,&nbsp;Axikegu ,&nbsp;Y.X. Bai ,&nbsp;Y.W. Bao ,&nbsp;D. Bastieri ,&nbsp;X.J. Bi ,&nbsp;Y.J. Bi ,&nbsp;W. Bian ,&nbsp;A.V. Bukevich ,&nbsp;Q. Cao ,&nbsp;W.Y. Cao ,&nbsp;Zhe Cao ,&nbsp;J. Chang ,&nbsp;J.F. Chang ,&nbsp;A.M. Chen ,&nbsp;E.S. Chen ,&nbsp;H.X. Chen ,&nbsp;Liang Chen ,&nbsp;Lin Chen ,&nbsp;X. Zuo","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103029","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103029","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The KM2A is the largest sub-array of the Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory (LHAASO). It consists of 5216 electromagnetic particle detectors (EDs) and 1188 muon detectors (MDs). The data recorded by the EDs and MDs are used to reconstruct primary information of cosmic-ray and gamma-ray showers. To ensure the reliability of the LHAASO-KM2A data, a three-level quality control system has been established. It is used to monitor the status of detector units, stability of reconstructed parameters and the performance of the array based on observations of the Crab Nebula and Moon shadow. This paper will introduce the control system and its application on the LHAASO-KM2A data collected from August 2021 to July 2023. During this period, the pointing and angular resolution of the array were stable. From the observations of the Moon shadow and Crab Nebula, the results achieved using the two methods are consistent with each other. For example, according to the observation of the Crab Nebula with KM2A at energies from 25 TeV to 100 TeV, the time averaged pointing errors are estimated to be <span><math><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>003</mn><mo>°</mo><mo>±</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>005</mn><mo>°</mo></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>001</mn><mo>°</mo><mo>±</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>006</mn><mo>°</mo></mrow></math></span> in the R.A. and Dec directions, respectively.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"164 ","pages":"Article 103029"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524001063/pdfft?md5=2e46eeda20db2bab268c8f740a474474&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524001063-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142122272","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Simulations of neutron activation background for the NνDEx experiment","authors":"Qianming Wang ,&nbsp;Zeyu Huang ,&nbsp;Pengchong Hu ,&nbsp;Emilio Ciuffoli","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103039","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103039","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>An extremely low-background environment is a crucial requirement for any neutrinoless double beta decay experiment. Neutrons are very difficult to stop, because they can pass through the shielding and activate nuclei in the detector, even inside the fiducial volume itself. Using Geant4 simulations we have studied the neutron background for N<span><math><mi>ν</mi></math></span>DEx-100 and the most efficient way to reduce it. Using a 60 cm thick external high-density polyethylene (HDPE) shielding the neutron background can be reduced down to <span><math><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>24</mn><mo>±</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>06</mn></mrow></math></span> events/year, lower than the background rate due to natural radioactivity (0.42 events/year), which was used as a benchmark for these calculations. The amount of HDPE needed can be significantly reduced by placing a filler in the empty space between the lead shielding and the steel vessel; in this way, it is sufficient to add 20 cm external HDPE shielding to reduce the neutron background down to <span><math><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>15</mn><mo>±</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>05</mn></mrow></math></span> events/year.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"164 ","pages":"Article 103039"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524001166/pdfft?md5=cd28f33708a1744c281c2f8d44767f41&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524001166-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142084371","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Control of the laser frequency in the Virgo interferometer: Dynamic noise budgeting for controller optimization","authors":"Mathyn van Dael ,&nbsp;Julia Casanueva ,&nbsp;Gert Witvoet ,&nbsp;Bas Swinkels ,&nbsp;Diego Bersanetti ,&nbsp;Manuel Pinto ,&nbsp;Paolo Ruggi ,&nbsp;Maddalena Mantovani ,&nbsp;Camilla de Rossi ,&nbsp;Piernicola Spinicelli ,&nbsp;Mattia Boldrini ,&nbsp;Tom Oomen","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103028","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103028","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This paper presents a framework for the derivation of a noise budget and the subsequent utilization in the optimization of the control design, using the laser frequency stabilization loop in the Virgo interferometer, which is a complex nested feedback system, as an experimental case study. First, the system dynamics and noise sources are modeled and experimentally verified to produce the noise budget, after which an optimization problem using the <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>H</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> norm is formulated and tailored to the specific design requirements for the detector. The structure of the synthesized controller is then used to produce an improved control design. Experimental verification of the developed controller on the Virgo interferometer shows roughly a factor 3 reduction in root-mean-square error, illustrating the effectiveness of the presented method.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"164 ","pages":"Article 103028"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524001051/pdfft?md5=f8dc056c4c825131ef0ee32f69698fa1&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524001051-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141984549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"On the same origin of quantum physics and general relativity from Riemannian geometry and Planck scale formalism","authors":"Chavis Srichan ,&nbsp;Pobporn Danvirutai ,&nbsp;Adrian David Cheok ,&nbsp;Jun Cai ,&nbsp;Ying Yan","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103036","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103036","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>It has been a long time to reconcile quantum physics and general relativity. To date, no globally accepted theory has been proposed to explain all physical observations. In this work, we reformulated the Riemannian geometry in terms of curvature and energy tensors using the Planck scale formalism. The proposed equation can be transformed into Dirac equations in electrodynamic and chromodynamic fields with a reduction in the background curvature. We redefined the mass and charge of leptons in terms of the interactions between the energy of the field and the curvature of the spacetime. The obtained equation is covariant in space–time and invariant with respect to any Planck scale. Therefore, the constants of the universe can be reduced to only two quantities: Planck length and Planck time. We proved that the Einstein field equation from general relativity is actually a relativistic quantum mechanical equation. We further modeled the universe using the equation with Einstein's lambda formalism and found that the universe dynamics could be considered as harmonic oscillators entangled with lambda curvature. This equation can be used to describe the energy transfer between two entangled spacetimes between the same universe and between any two universes (ER=EPR). The singularity of black holes can be avoided at the Planck scale, because space and time are no longer entangled. This equation predicts that information of light from the entangled universe can be transferred to our universe. The gravitational wave background was predicted, and its spectrum was close to that of the observation.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"164 ","pages":"Article 103036"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524001130/pdfft?md5=59636c791b6277b2dc667639eaeecef0&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524001130-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142098979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anisotropies of diffusive ultra-high energy cosmic rays in f(R) gravity theory","authors":"Swaraj Pratim Sarmah,&nbsp;Umananda Dev Goswami","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Understanding the anisotropy of ultra high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) is crucial for unravelling the origins and propagation mechanisms of these enigmatic particles. In this work, we studied the dipolar anisotropy of UHECRs in the diffusive regime by considering three cosmological models: the standard <span><math><mi>Λ</mi></math></span>CDM model, <span><math><mrow><mi>f</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>R</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span> gravity power-law model and the Starobinsky model. This work aims to see the role of the <span><math><mrow><mi>f</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>R</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span> gravity theory in understanding the anisotropy of UHECRs without condoning the standard cosmology. We found that the amplitude of the dipolar anisotropy is sensitive to these cosmological models, with the <span><math><mrow><mi>f</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>R</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span> power-law model predicting the largest amplitude, while the <span><math><mi>Λ</mi></math></span>CDM model predicting the smallest amplitude at most of the energies in the range considered. The predicted amplitude of the Starobinsky model lies within the range of the <span><math><mi>Λ</mi></math></span>CDM one. This work not only provides a way for exploration of UHECRs anisotropy within different cosmological contexts but also may pave the way for new avenues of research at the intersection of high-energy astrophysics.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103005"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141485839","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Detection limits and trigger rates for ultra-high energy cosmic ray detection with the EUSO-TA ground-based fluorescence telescope","authors":"J.H. Adams Jr. ,&nbsp;L. Anchordoqui ,&nbsp;D. Barghini ,&nbsp;M. Battisti ,&nbsp;A.A. Belov ,&nbsp;J.W. Belz ,&nbsp;M. Bertaina ,&nbsp;F. Bisconti ,&nbsp;C. Blaksley ,&nbsp;S. Blin-Bondil ,&nbsp;F. Capel ,&nbsp;M. Casolino ,&nbsp;A. Cummings ,&nbsp;T. Ebisuzaki ,&nbsp;J. Eser ,&nbsp;S. Falk ,&nbsp;F. Fenu ,&nbsp;S. Ferrarese ,&nbsp;G. Filippatos ,&nbsp;M. Fouka ,&nbsp;M.Yu. Zotov","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>EUSO-TA is a ground-based fluorescence telescope built to validate the design of ultra-high energy cosmic ray fluorescence detectors to be operated in space with the technology developed within the Joint Exploratory Missions for Extreme Universe Space Observatory (JEM-EUSO) program. It operates at the Telescope Array (TA) site in Utah, USA. With an external trigger provided by the Black Rock Mesa fluorescence detectors of the Telescope Array experiment, with EUSO-TA we observed air-showers from ultra-high energy cosmic rays, as well as laser events from the Central Laser Facility at the TA site and from portable lasers like the JEM-EUSO Global Light System prototype. Since the Black Rock Mesa fluorescence detectors have a <span><math><mo>∼</mo></math></span>30 times larger field of view than EUSO-TA, they allow a primary energy reconstruction based on the observation of a large part of the shower evolution, including the shower maximum, while EUSO-TA observes only a part of it, usually far away from the maximum. To estimate the detection limits of EUSO-TA in energy and distance, a method was developed to re-scale their energy, taking into account that EUSO-TA observes only a portion of the air-showers. The method was applied on simulation sets with showers with different primaries, energy, direction, and impact point on the ground, as well as taking into account the experimental environment. EUSO-TA was simulated with an internal trigger and different elevation angles and electronics. The same method was then applied also to real measurements and compared to the simulations. In addition, the method can also be used to estimate the detection limits for experiments that are operated at high altitudes and in most cases can see the maximum of the showers. This was done for EUSO-SPB1, an instrument installed on a super-pressure balloon. Finally, the expected detection rates for EUSO-TA were also assessed using the prepared simulated event sets. The rates correspond to a few detections per recording session of 30 h of observation, depending on the background level and the configuration of the detector.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103007"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524000847/pdfft?md5=a964f46404a79038e01b92faa3b63380&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524000847-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141595251","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cosmic rays: High energy particle interactions in the atmosphere - Memorial issue for Prof. Dr. Thomas K. Gaisser","authors":"Frank G. Schröder ,&nbsp;Serap Tilav","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103009","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103009"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141595250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating early dark energy with new observations","authors":"Wei Zheng ,&nbsp;Shang Li ,&nbsp;Jun-Qing Xia","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103012","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103012","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This paper mainly presents updated constraints on several types of early dark energy (EDE) models proposed by V. Pettorino <em>et al.</em> using observations of cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) from Planck satellite, the Pantheon Type Ia supernovae (SNIa) sample, and baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) measurements. The results yield stringent upper limits on the constant EDE fraction parameter <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>Ω</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>e</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>. While the present equation of state (EoS) of dark energy <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>w</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> in the EDE1 model suggests a mild tendency towards a value less than <span><math><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></math></span>, these models remain compatible with the <span><math><mi>Λ</mi></math></span>CDM scenario. Partly as a result of this slight tendency towards phantom late-time physics, EDE1 model supports a higher Hubble constant value, potentially narrowing the Hubble tension gap. The global fitting results also align with the notion that the constraint ability on <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>Ω</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>e</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> weakens when dark energy is present only over a limited period after last scattering. Furthermore, by using the formalism of Fisher information matrix, we forecast uncertainties in the measured parameters of EDE models from the next-generation “Stage 4” CMB (CMB-S4) experiment. Forecasted precision of <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>w</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> and <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>Ω</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>e</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> surpasses certain prior works, and most other basic parameters exhibit significantly higher limit precision compared to Planck 2018 results within the <span><math><mi>Λ</mi></math></span>CDM framework. To confirm the presence of EDE within the EDE1<span><math><mo>∼</mo></math></span>EDE4 parameterization frameworks, further advancements in observations are crucial.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103012"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141690922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seminal electromagnetic fields from preinflation","authors":"Daniela Magos ,&nbsp;Mauricio Bellini","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103006","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>We investigate the geometric dynamics of the primordial electric and magnetic fields during the early stages of the universe by extending a recently introduced quantum algebra (Bellini et al., 2023). We work on an extended model of gravity that considers the boundary terms from the Einstein–Hilbert action as geometric quantum fluctuations of the spacetime. We propose that the extended Riemann manifold is generated by a new connection <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mover><mrow><mi>δ</mi><mi>Γ</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>ˆ</mo></mrow></mover></mrow><mrow><mi>α</mi><mi>β</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>μ</mi></mrow></msubsup></math></span>. This connection contains geometric information about the fluctuations of gravitational and electromagnetic fields in the vacuum, which could have been crucial during the primordial stages of the universe’s evolution. We revisit a preinflationary cosmological model (Bellini, 2023) with a variable time scale and negative spatial curvature, such that the universe begins with a null initial background energy density. We observed the emergence of large scale magnetic fields starting from small values during the early phases of the universe’s evolution. Subsequently, these fields decrease to reach present day values on the order of <span><math><mrow><mfenced><mrow><mover><mrow><mi>δ</mi><mi>B</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>ˆ</mo></mrow></mover></mrow></mfenced><mo>≃</mo><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>12</mn></mrow></msup><mspace></mspace><mi>G</mi></mrow></math></span> on cosmological scales (between <span><math><mrow><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>24</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mrow><mn>1</mn><msup><mrow><mn>0</mn></mrow><mrow><mn>26</mn></mrow></msup></mrow></math></span> meters). This significant deviation from inflationary models eliminates the need to impose excessively large initial values on these fields.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103006"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141539231","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"On the model uncertainties for the predicted muon content of extensive air showers","authors":"Sergey Ostapchenko,&nbsp;Günter Sigl","doi":"10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.astropartphys.2024.103004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Motivated by the excess of the muon content of cosmic ray induced extensive air showers (EAS), relative to EAS modeling, observed by the Pierre Auger Observatory, and by the tension between Auger data and air shower simulations on the maximal muon production depth <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>X</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>max</mo></mrow><mrow><mi>μ</mi></mrow></msubsup></math></span>, we investigate the possibility to modify the corresponding EAS simulation results, within the Standard Model of particle physics. We start by specifying the kinematic range for secondary hadron production, which is of relevance for such predictions. We further investigate the impact on the predicted EAS muon number and on <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>X</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>max</mo></mrow><mrow><mi>μ</mi></mrow></msubsup></math></span> of various modifications of the treatment of hadronic interactions, in the framework of the QGSJET-III model, in particular the model calibration to accelerator data, the amount of the “glue” in the pion, and the energy dependence of the pion exchange process. None of the considered modifications of the model allowed us to enhance the EAS muon content by more than 10%. On the other hand, for the maximal muon production depth, some of the studied modifications of particle production give rise up to <span><math><mrow><mo>∼</mo><mn>10</mn></mrow></math></span> g/cm<span><math><msup><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msup></math></span> larger <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>X</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>max</mo></mrow><mrow><mi>μ</mi></mrow></msubsup></math></span> values, which increases the difference with Auger observations.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":55439,"journal":{"name":"Astroparticle Physics","volume":"163 ","pages":"Article 103004"},"PeriodicalIF":4.2,"publicationDate":"2024-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927650524000811/pdfft?md5=8cd3e8d5d6705d8492c0d8c3989b0ad1&pid=1-s2.0-S0927650524000811-main.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141595252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"物理与天体物理","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}